Australian Institute of Family Studies
Green line
Family futures: issues in research and policy
7th Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference
Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre,
Darling Harbour Sydney, 24-26 July 2000
Green line

Abstracts


Concurrent Sessions:


Monday, July 24th, 1.30-3.00pm

Session 1a: Focus on Fathering - Symposium


Discussant: Robin Sullivan, Commissioner, Children's Commission of Queensland

Currently there is a public spotlight on men's issues, as changes in gender relationships have led to a questioning of what it is to be a man, and a father in contemporary Australia. We have also, unfortunately, witnessed in the news in recent times, the tragic consequences of desperate men reacting violently to the breakdown of relationships. We are seeing an increasing recognition of the importance of healthy relationships, of the effects of domestic and family violence on children, either as witnesses or victims, and of the costs to men, children, families and society of problematic relationships. This is occurring as part of rapid social change which is affecting all aspects of our lives, including an increase in the number of children who do not have a male figure consistently in their lives.

The Children's Commission of Queensland was established in 1996 and serves to protect and promote the well being of all children and young people in Queensland. The Children's Commission endeavours to promote translation into practice of the principles contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC) - ratified by the Australian Government in 1991 - through liaison with government and non-government agencies providing services to children.

Given the factors mentioned above, relationships between men and their children are of special interest to the Children's Commission. Mindful of research which demonstrates the link between strong familial relationships and productive and fulfilling adult citizenship, during the year 2000 we are undertaking a specific initiative to raise awareness and inform public debate on contemporary fathering issues, and to promote positive fathering skills.

This symposium will consider aspects of the current context which have led to the Children's Commission Focus on Fathering Project and give insight into some of the activities being undertaken as part of that project.

Session 1a (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
Robin Sullivan, Jacqui Craig & Sue Howard, Children's Commission of Queensland
Fathering and the welfare of children - the contemporary context


Being a father is challenging in contemporary Australia as many factors shape the way fatherhood is perceived and fathers behave. Much has been written recently on the role of men in our society. Boys and young men now live in complex cultural contexts where experiences of what it is to be a male and a father are rich and diverse, but also confusing and contradictory - even the definition of "father" is currently contested. Their own personal upbringing and factors like socioeconomic and ethnic background affect men's experiences and the ways they express themselves as fathers. It is becoming increasingly common for men to live separately from their children, to father outside of marriage, or to "father" biological offspring as well as the children of their spouse or partner. There is also an increasing number of custodial single fathers. Although "men as fathers" is a comparatively new area of study, it has been argued that when fathers are positively involved in and provide resources for their children's lives, then their children's wellbeing is enhanced, and that what fathers do, the way they relate to their children, is what makes a difference.

The Children's Commission has based its approach in the Focus on Fathering Project on an awareness of the need for research to inform policy development, and for a multilevel approach. This paper will set the context for the symposium by exploring further the above background and presenting an overview of the Children's Commission Focus on Fathering project.

Session 1a (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
Jacqui Craig, Children's Commission of Queensland
Raising the profile of fathering in the community


In its endeavour to advocate for the needs, interests and aspirations of Queensland's youngest citizens, the Children's Commission is committed to utilising social marketing as a tool to promote child protection, positive parenting and 'child friendly' communities.

Conduct of high profile, community based events such as the Focus on Fathering day seeks to engage the local community in:

  • event planning and management processes;
  • articulating the dimensions of effective fathering; and,
  • raising community awareness of positive parenting strategies.

    • A key component of this initiative is the empowerment of children and young people afforded by the process of consultation and collaboration underpinning event planning and management. Establishment of productive partnerships between Government agencies, non-government human services organisations and the corporate sector also seeks to advance broad based community capacity building, development of social capital and a 'child friendly' philosophy at a local level.
    A significant feature of this initiative is the development of a model to assist local communities to:
  • conduct a Focus on Fathering day that accommodates the local socio-cultural contexts;
  • celebrate positive parenting across the state; and,
  • progress adoption of a 'child friendly' philosophy at a local level.
    •
     
    Session 1a (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Sue Howard, Children's Commission of Queensland
    Fathering behind bars


    The Children's Commission is particularly concerned to support children and young people who are marginalised and in vulnerable situations in society. As part of the Focus on Fathering Project, it is interested in exploring issues relating to fathers in prison.

    There are several aspects to this. Firstly, the long-term effects of incarceration can be devastating on the family unit and in particular on children. It is very difficult for relationships to develop and flourish when one person in that relationship is in prison. Secondly, the antisocial behaviour of prisoners that led to incarceration often includes violence. Links between the incidence of domestic violence and child abuse are increasingly being made.

    Pathways to Prevention, the Report for the National Campaign Against Violence and Crime and the National Anti-Crime Strategy (1999) recognised the importance of intervention and the need to consider groups in society (eg. indigenous peoples) explicitly.

    The Commission is concerned by statistics which indicate the over-representation of indigenous people in prisons (1585 per 100,000 population compared with 116 per 100,000 "other people" according to 1997 Crime and Justice statistics), and youth detention (343 per 100,000 of indigenous young people compared with 15 per 100,000 of non-indigenous young people).

    The Queensland government's Aboriginal & Torres Strait Advisory Board (ATSIAB) is also interested in programs that support Indigenous inmates to maintain strong connections to their families and communities. ATSIAB and the Children's Commission are working together to explore issues around the relationships between fathers and their children when the father is in prison. A scoping paper and an issues paper are being drafted to inform the later development of a fathering program for indigenous prisoners.

    This presentation will explain the nature of this aspect of the Focus on Fathering Project, and highlight the key issues which have been identified regarding fathering behind bars.
     

    Session 1b: Social capital and civil society

    Session 1b (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Wendy Stone & Jody Hughes, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    What role for social capital in family policy - and how does it measure up?
    This paper defines social capital as networks of social relations characterised by norms of trust and reciprocity, and as a resource to action. The paper details the recent rapid escalation in academic and policy interest in the capacity of social capital to generate enhanced macro outcomes such as more efficient economies and more democratic polities as well as micro level outcomes of improved health, family well being and community cohesion. The ways social capital is being discussed in the Australian social policy context specifically are then examined.

    The paper argues that despite debate about the potential of social capital to contribute to active economic, community and political life, and the recent enthusiasm for the concept in public policy circles, there is a gulf between social capital theory and empirical understandings of the concept. The paper demonstrates via review of international, and scant Australian literature available, that it is this gulf between theoretical understandings of social capital and empirical work which has resulted in confusion about the meaning, measurement, outcomes and relevance of social capital.

    In an attempt to bridge the gulf between social capital theory and empirical work, the paper presents a conceptually sound and theoretically informed measurement framework for empirical investigation of social capital, and sets out a research agenda for interrogating the value of social capital for Australian families, communities and policy.

    Session 1b (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Anne Hampshire, Benevolent Society of NSW & Karen Healy, University of Sydney
    Social capital in practice
    Australia's oldest not-for-profit organisation, The Benevolent Society, has identified the building of social capital as its key organisational objective. It has done so because it sees the need to look for more effective ways of meeting long standing and emerging complex social issues. There has been much written on the theory of social capital. The challenge for organisations like The Benevolent Society is the how - how does an organisation build and promote social capital? How is the concept of social capital explained to workers in the field? What relevance does it have for how they work? What relevance, if any, does it have for the clients of services? What, within an organisation, promotes and what works against, the building of social capital?

    In order to begin to marry the theory of social capital with the practice of a medium sized not-for-profit organisation delivering a variety of community services (in the areas of the aged, children and families, women's health etc) The Benevolent Society has done some preliminary work on developing a Community Engagement Strategy. (Given the diversity of understandings around the term 'social capital' and its failure to be "instantly" understood by both staff and clients, The Society has opted to use the term 'community engagement' for this project).

    The Conference paper would:
    The project involved extensive consultation across the organisation, a national and international search for best practice in community engagement, including the use of volunteers, and an examination of some high need communities in Sydney. The Benevolent Society and the University of Sydney are applying for funding to undertake a 3 year project which builds on this initial work.


    Session 1b (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Kerry Flanagan, Department of Family and Community Services
    Social capital and stronger communities - the challenges for policy design and evaluation
    The Family and Community Services portfolio has a strategic outcome of 'Stronger Communities'. Minister Newman has recently announced a Stronger Communities Strategy that will focus on developing and supporting social capital. This signals a relatively new approach for government in social policy, as it shifts the focus towards the social networks of support that assist individuals, families and communities to prosper, rather than focusing solely on specific problems like unemployment, homelessness and low income. This new approach asks the question: why do some communities succeed in the face of social and economic challenges, where others fail?

    This approach has strong parallels in the "joined-up solutions" approach being trialed overseas, most notably through the Social Exclusion Unit in the United Kingdom, and the Enterprise Communities/Empowerment Zones initiatives in the United States. However it raises a raises a number of issues in terms of policy design and evaluation.

    For example:

    FaCS has been undertaking research in a number of these areas, through a mix of commissioned research, in-house research, and through a series of Social Capital Think Tanks. The paper would present some initial findings of this work, its implications for policy directions, and areas of future research.
     

    Session 1c: Youth and adolescent well being

    Session 1c (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Stephen Matthey & Pandora Petrovski, South Western Sydney Area Health Service
    Preventing Depression in Adolescents - The Evaluation of the Resourceful Adolescent Program (RAP) in two South Western Sydney High Schools

    Australia has the highest rate of suicide in the industrialised world, and youth suicide is a growing problem (National Health and Medical Research Council, 1997).

    The current study implemented and evaluated a universal, group-based, resilience-building prevention program (Resourcful Adolescent Program) for depression in young people within two South Western Sydney school settings. Three hundred and ninenty- nine students (55% male and 45% female) aged between 12 - 19 years participated in the program. Three self-report measures were administered prior to (pre-treatment) and after (post-treatment) the program: Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale; Children's Depression Inventory and Adolescent Coping Scale Short Form.

    For each highschool, results are presented for a)the total sample, and b)those participants falling within the clinical range at the start of the program. Overall, the results provide, partial support for the efficacy of RAP with high school students, including those from a non-English speaking background. Limitations of the program and the evaluation process are discussed as well as recommendations for future research.

    It is stressed that in order to draw more definitive conclusions as to the overall effectiveness of a depression prevention program such as RAP, the collection of longitudinal data is essential. Also as Roberts (1999,p55) notes, "a most important challenge for prevention researchers will involve following youngsters into early adulthood and assessing the impact on the most serious of associated problems, suicide."
     

    Session 1c (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Penny Mitchell, National Youth Suicide Prevention Communications Strategy, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Families and youth suicide prevention: implications for policy development

    The Australian Institute of Family Studies has recently completed the summative evaluation of the National Youth Suicide Prevention Strategy. The methodology included a qualitative meta-analysis of all the evaluation reports of projects funded under the Strategy. Nearly 50 projects were included in this work. A substantial number of these were either (i) directly focused on risk and protective factors operating in and around families or (ii) confronted these factors while focusing on other approaches to suicide prevention. The findings of the evaluation raise issues that need to be addressed in family and community policy development.

    A wide variety of agencies in a number of different sectors provide services to families. Increased interest in primary prevention and early intervention within these sectors, particularly mental health, criminal justice and education, has led to increasing recognition of the need for agencies in these sectors to work even more closely with families and for the different sectors to collaborate with each other to address common risk and protective factors. Despite recent efforts of the Commonwealth Government to concentrate administration of family services within one department, practitioners continue to experience considerable difficulties in developing the kinds of intersectoral partnerships that are necessary to modify the risk factors that underlie a number of pressing social problems.

    This paper will describe some of the major barriers to the formation of productive intersectoral partnerships, explore the structural factors that appear to underlie these barriers, and offer some recommendations for action that might be adopted under the Stronger Families and Communities Strategy as well as other arms of the Commonwealth, state and territory governments.


    Session 1d: Family and property

    Session 1d (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Alun Preece, University of Queensland
    The Impact of the Law of Inheritance on the Family

    The paper will examine the relationship between the law of inheritance and family law and the economic impact of inheritance on the family. The history of this relationship will be examined as well as current developments and likely future developments in the relationship. The transfer of property in a family context other than by inheritance will also be examined and there will be comparisons made with the legal systems of other countries where appropriate.

    Session 1d (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Wendy Parker, Massey University, New Zealand
    New Zealand Property Rights Legislation: a changing landscape?

    Matrimonial and de facto property law reform proposals reached the New Zealand parliament eighteen months ago. This paper explores the changes and the arguments behind them, including retaining the presumption of equal sharing. The impact of New Zealand matrimonial property law and Australian de facto developments on legal outcomes for New Zealand de facto couples is also considered.

    Session 1d (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Tom Altobelli, University of Wollongong
    The family home in Australia

    The family home plays an important part in contemporary Australian life. It is a place of shelter and nurture of the family. The family home is the most valuable and most commonly owned asset for Australians. Governmental policies encourage home acquisition and ownership, and substantial funds are spent on public housing. Moreover the family home plays a vital role in providing stability and security for children, particularly at otherwise turbulent times in their lives such as when parents are separating.

    This paper examines and critiques Australian law as it relates to the family home. Australian family law, it will be argued, offers no protection at all for the family home, despite the home being a cornerstone of marriage, and a shelter to the family. Australian family law, despite its supposed focus on the best interests of children, in fact favours the economic interests of parents when it comes to dealing with the family home in property division. An examination of Australian civil law, particularly the laws governing insolvency and the relationships between debtors and creditors, leads to the same conclusion. Australian law is compared to laws relating to the family home in New Zealand, California, Ontario and England. These latter jurisdictions have laws which reflect and implement policies which serve to protect the family home for the benefit of its occupants, particularly children, even if the interests of third parties are postponed for a period.

    The writer argues the case for special treatment of the family home in Australian law, particularly when the interests of minor children are involved.
     

    Session 1e: Older Australians

    Session 1e (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Ailsa Burns, Macquarie University & Rosemary Leonard, University of Western Sydney
    Chapters of our lives: life narratives of low-income midlife and older women

    The study used a narrative approach to explore the ways in which midlife and older women perceive their later years. Life review interviews were held with 60 low-income women (20 aged 40-45, 20 aged 50-55 and 20 aged 60-65) living in the western suburbs of Sydney. At the end of the interview, participants were asked to consider their life story as a book (including, if they wished, their future life as they now saw it), to decide how they would divide this book into chapters, and to select a title for each chapter. The average number of book chapters was 8.1 for the total sample and 8.5 for the oldest group, 45.3% of which covered events after age 40. Thematic analysis of the chapters covering the last 20 years of the 60-65 age group identified four story types. These were stories of loss (10%), stories of busy contentment (20%), 'breaking out of role' stories (35%) and 'safe harbour' stories (35%). [The 'safe harbour' stories of the 60-65 age group usually referred back to former chapters describing 'stormy seas'.] Thus 70% of the 60-65 age group described, later life as an notable improvement on the past ('contentment time' 'the best years of your life!'). For half of this 70%, their present situation was a welcome relief after the 'heavy burden' years of hard work (lowpaid and unpaid), stress, money worries, and suppression of self. The other half had at some point broken out from that pattern, for example through terminating a distressing marriage: this increased their difficulties at the time, but brought happiness later.

    These findings suggest that one reason for the later life satisfaction regularly found in surveys (Carstensen, 1982) may be simply the disappearance or diminishment of previous stresses. This interpretation is supported by data on hours of work, which were lowest among the 60-65 age group, and mostly made up of chosen voluntary work. Internal locus of control also increased significantly with age, and this was consonant with the narrative descriptions of having at last escaped the t yranny of their circumstances ('My own woman at last!'). Some of the stories of the two younger group presented the same themes as the 60-65 group, but there was more emphasis on 'stormy seas' than 'safe harbours'.

    Session 1e (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Marianne James & Adam Graycar, Australian Institute of Criminology
    Crime and Older Australians - The role of the family in prevention

    Official crime statistics show that people over the age of 65 are the least likely to be victimised, and that the prevalence of victimisation declines progressively from the early twenties. Older people are however, at risk from four main sources:

    In the first group, some older people might be at slightly greater risk because of vulnerability and dependency (though it is crucial to note that most older people are neither dependent nor vulnerable). In this category, older people are less likely to report their victimisation in a household survey, and thus the low rates associated with older people may be somewhat understated.

    The second group is very small in Australian life, and the routine activity patterns of older people place them at very low risk of victimisation by strangers.

    The third group is an area of potential growth. White collar crime is expected to grow and asset-rich older people may be more likely to be targeted than younger people. As well as becoming victims, it is in this group that older people may become offenders. When we examine criminal careers, we note the falling off in the likelihood of offending as people age.

    The fourth risk category of victimisation is directly related to vulnerability and contains overlaps with the first category. Although it has not been criminalised, the term "elder abuse" covers activities such as physical abuse, psychological/emotional abuse, financial abuse and neglect. In some cases, this occurs in the context of a private residence, and most often, but not always within the family. In other cases, it occurs when there is a duty of care relationship and a paid carer, either in a residential or domestic setting, abuses the older person. This paper will analyse the above issues and examine the role which families can play in safety support prevention for older people in Australia.
     

    Session 1e (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Anita Seibert, Women's Health East
    What About Us? The role of grandmothers in childrearing - a cross-cultural perspective. Work in progress report

    It has been reported that grandmothers are one of the main providers of child-care to young children in Australia (Women's Health in the North 2000; Millward 1996; Grose 1997). Despite the fact that grandmothering involves much more then occasional baby siting, the recognition of the beneficial impact on grandchildren in particular (Levine 1990), and the whole family in general (Cotterill 1992), the role of grandmothers in childrearing is often overlooked.

    Little is known about the positive and negative impact of grandmothering on the grandmothers themselves, with very few service providers offering services specifically aimed at grandmothers performing care-giving roles. Similarly, very little research conducted in Australia focuses on grandmothering.

    This paper focuses on an action research project currently conducted by Women's Health East. The project aims to strengthen existing knowledge about the health impact of grandmothering on grandmothers and to develop strategies for assisting grandmothers in this important role. This is achieved through analysing experiences of two groups of grandmothers residing in the Eastern region of Melbourne: Polish born and Anglo-Australians.

    The project will identify specific health and service needs of grandmothers from the two groups, address cultural differences in approaches to grandmothering, and outline ways in which different communities provide culturally appropriate support to grandmothers caring for their grandchildren. The research will be based on empirical research involving approximately two hundred and fifty grandmothers. The data will be gathered through focus groups, in-depth interviews and questionnaires.

    The paper will also report on the community development component of the project involving activities designed specifically to meet the needs of grandmothers, such as playgroups for grandmother and their grandchildren, health information workshops and leisure activities.


    Session 1f: Adjusting to divorce

    Session 1f (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Bruce Hawthorne,
    Nonresident fathers' struggle with the system

    Nonresident fathers often complain that 'the system' is against them. Although men are far from innocents in the breakdown of relationships, the claims of nonresident fathers have some justification. As mothers more frequently decide to end a relationship and assume the role of resident parent, the majority of fathers experience shock and deep grief at the time of separation. Failure to establish regular contact with children during these early, emotionally charged stages of separation endangers their continued involvement in children's lives. A lack of clarity about the role of nonresident father tends to impede the development of a strong paternal identity after separation, which in turn further threatens fathers' involvement with children. Some divorce literature adopts a deficit paradigm in dealing with nonresident fathers, with reports of evidence that fathers' involvement after separation contributes little, if anything, to children's adjustment.
    When mothering is the yardstick by which the quality of parenting after separation is measured, fathers inevitably emerge as deficient. Fathers usually connect with children through mothers. On losing their relationship with mothers, fathers have to learn a new way of relating to children. The challenge is even greater in families where mothers positively discourage this involvement.
    The legal system demands that nonresident fathers' financially support their children at a level that leaves many low-income fathers living in poverty and unable to provide children with an attractive environment in which to spend time with them. The system offers little encouragement for fathers to retain some control over their financial support of children, and displays a somewhat righteous indignation at attempts by nonresident fathers to retain greater control of their income. The legal system frequently discourages fathers from applying for residence of children in the belief that their application is unlikely to succeed. The legal system also fails to acknowledge the heavy pre-separation involvement some fathers have with children, offering them a contact regime that effectively marginalises them in their children's lives. Nonresident fathers constantly encounter social institutions which are unwilling or unable to acknowledge that most children living in a single-parent household in fact belong to a two-parent family.
     

    Session 1f (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Ruth Weston & Bruce Smyth, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Patterns of economic well being after divorce: an update

    About a decade ago, research conducted by the Australian Institute of Family Studies suggested that women (and their children) were at a considerable disadvantage compared to men in terms of their financial circumstances following marital dissolution. Since this period, significant social and economic change has taken place, including the introduction of the Child Support Scheme, substantial increases in government income support, and new trends in the Australian labour market (particularly the increasing availability of part-time jobs for women). This paper asks: Is there still a clear disparity between the post-divorce equivalent household incomes of men and women? Which family types are most likely to be financially disadvantaged post-separation? Data derive from a random national telephone survey of divorced Australians conducted in late 1997 by the Institute (N=474).


    Session 1f (Monday 24th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Jody Hughes, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Marginal mates and unwedded women: repartnering after divorce in Australia

    Past research, including research conducted in Australia during the 1980ís (McDonald 1986; Funder, Harrison & Weston 1993), found that women were less likely than men to repartner after divorce, and that women with few economic resources were more likely to remarry than other women. However, significant social and economic change over the past decade may have altered these patterns, including changes in attitudes and values regarding gender roles, changes in the labour market (such as reduced employment opportunities for older men) and changes in law and public policy (such as more rigorous child support enforcement and substantial increases in social security payments).

    This study re-examines the link between gender, economic resources and patterns of post-divorce repartnering using recent Institute data. These data derive from the Australian Divorce Transitions Project, a study based on a random national telephone survey of 650 divorced Australians. First, gender differences in repartnering rates and types of new relationships are assessed. Second, logistic regression models are used to disentangle the relative influence of economic resources and responsibilities for children on men's and women's repartnering patterns.

    Results show that gender remains the most important factor influencing whether or not people repartner after divorce, but the interaction between gender and economic resources appears to have changed in the past decade, in line with social and economic change. Variants of exchange theory are used to interpret these patterns, and the position of children in the equation is also examined. Some policy implications of the data are briefly considered.


    Monday, July 24th, 3.30-5.00pm

    Session 2a: Early childhood intervention programs

    Session 2a
    Ewa Griffiths & Jennifer Hayes, Centrelink
    Towards stability and independence for young families in crisis- Townsville, Queensland

    The Family Crisis Childcare Pilot Project began operations in Townsville on 17 January 2000. One of two new pilot projects in Australia funded by the Commonwealth Department of Family & Community Services, it is the only one operating out of Centrelink and in a provincial city.

    The Centrelink Young Family Support Worker has been funded to examine how childcare services can assist young families in crisis overcome their immediate difficulties and work towards a more stable and independent future. Early intervention and prevention are central to the model of service delivery, as are program flexibility and assisting young parents to actively initiate positive change.

    Participants develop an individual family action plan with the project social worker that encompasses immediate crisis needs and longer term goals. The project provides brokerage funds to improve opportunities for successful independent parenting, covering anything from driving lessons/licence costs to access support or education services, to TAFE fees. When required, access to childcare services is provided to enable the family to use relevant services and facilities.

    The primary target group are partnered or single young parents aged 15 - 25 and the anticipated project outcomes include:
    The project expects to provide an insight into the needs and solutions for young families in crisis as well as identifying gaps and issues within existing service delivery that contribute to the difficulties encountered by the target group.


    Session 2a (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Graeme Vimpani, University of Newcastle
    NIFTEY - The National Investment For The Early Years

    The National Investment for the Early Years (NIFTEY) began during 1999 in response to the emerging evidence of the potential for lifelong impact of early childhood experiences on health and well-being outcomes, many of which appear to be mediated by their impact on early brain development. This evidence was summarised in the Pathways to Prevention report published by National Crime Prevention in early 1999. NIFTEY is now seeking to encourage broad community and political support for a national Investment in this age group.

    NIFTEY is an evolving broadly based coalition of practitioners, policy makers and academics from many domains including child and family welfare, paediatrics and child health nursing, child and adolescent mental health, public health, early childhood education, developmental psychology and criminology. NIFTEY's vision is to build a lifetime on the early years and aims to ensure (a) that the general community knows that the early years of life, especially the first three years, are foundationally important for the rest of life and that action must occur to ensure that all children are provided with the best start in life and (b) better integration of policies and programs for young children across government and society. The importance of connecting families with young children with community supports is regarded as paramount.

    NIFTEY has received seed funding from the Commonwealth government to enable it to become established as a not for profit company limited by guarantee with sales tax exemption. The company is registered as NIFTEY Limited. In late March NIFTEY also received advice of a grant of $25,000 from the trustees of the Sir Sidney Myer Trust.

    NIFTEY has already achieved some success in influencing the political process at a national and state level because of its capacity to build on themes evident in political discourse. For example, early childhood intervention was highlighted as a key preventive strategy at the NSW Drug Summit in 1999, NIFTEY was mentioned by the NSW Premier at a recent peak luncheon for business people in Sydney, and the importance of supporting early childhood and good parenting are key principles of the developing National Families Strategy. NIFTEY's work plan for the next 12 months will be presented at the Conference.


    Session 2a (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Robyn McKay & Lee Emerson, Department of Family and Community Services
    Prevention and early intervention strategies for families

    The Commonwealth Government has been steadily progressing work on early intervention and prevention strategies for families. Most recently, was the announcement in April by the Prime Minister of the Stronger Families and Communities Strategy. The Government recognises that helping to build stronger family and community relationships can do a lot to prevent difficult and expensive problems that arise where these relationships break down or do not work as well as they could. There is good sense and good value in investing in early intervention and prevention approaches. The Stronger Families and Communities Strategy seeks to establish new partnerships to strengthen families and communities and commits over $240 million over the next four years, beginning 1 July 2000, to:
    This will be implemented through nine new initiatives, five of which relate directly to support for families, and the other four to community capacity building.
     
    Research shows us that focusing on prevention and early intervention is more effective in the long-term than responses that only resolve immediate crises. The Stronger Families and Communities Strategy seeks to tackle problems early on, before they become entrenched. The paper will relate themes from the emerging evidence base on early intervention and prevention, especially in relation to early childhood, to this and other recent policy responses including support around the Family Law system, Child Support and Child Care. In particular, it will highlight findings from recently commissioned expert reviews in the areas of early childhood, work and family, and marriage and relationship education.
     

    Session 2b: Out of Home Care

    Session 2b (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Gwynnyth Llewellyn, Kirsty Thompson & Samantha Whybrow, University of Sydney
    Family well being and out-of-home placement for children with disabilities

    Many families continue to seek out-of-home placement for their young children with a disability. In contrast, other families report positive experiences caring for their child at home. This presentation reports a 3-year prospective, longitudinal study (1998-2000) investigating the characteristics of family wellbeing in families caring for their children with disabilities and high support needs aged 6 to 13 years at home. Of the 82 families in the study, 42% have children with intellectual disability. Yearly interviews with the primary caregiver include quantitative and qualitative measures of caregiver health, coping, family functioning, family accommodation, child hassle and out-of-home placement tendency. Characteristics of those families at-risk of placing their child out-of-home will be presented. The significance of this research relates to identifying the factors that influence family wellbeing in addition to those factors influencing out-of-home placement decisions.
     

    Session 2b (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Paul Murphy & Michael Clare, The University of Western Australia
    Peer mentors as partners in the leaving care process: evaluation of a Western Australian initiative

    This paper reports on an tandem Peer Mentoring and Leaving Care Education project for young people in the process of leaving State Care. The project was a joint endeavour by the Department of Social Work and Social Policy at The University of Western Australia (UWA), the Western Australian Association of Young People in Care (WAAYPIC), and (the Department of) Family and Children's Services. The project was funded by the ANZ Foundation.

    The aim of the project was to pilot and evaluate an innovative strategy to support young people making the transition from State Care to independent living by:

    1. developing and running a series of workshops on areas such as legal issues, obtaining accommodation, employment and vocational training, health issues, and money management for young people in the process of preparing to leave care, and

    2. 2.connecting the young people with a peer mentor to assist their transition to independence. After outlining the background and rationale for the project, the paper describes how WAAYPIC conducted the Peer Mentoring training and matching processes.

    The paper then discusses the content and conduct of the seven Leaving Care Education workshops. The final part of the paper presents the evaluation, lessons learned, and recommendations for further development of this pioneering programme.
     

    Session 2b (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Susan Kelly, Australian Insitute of Health and Welfare
    Adoption in Australia - an overview

    This paper examines adoptions data collected by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare from the State and Territory community services departments. Adoption in Australia has undergone dramatic change since the late 1960s. Data show that after a peak of nearly 10,000 adoptions in 1971-72, the number of adoptions in Australia has fallen to 543 in 1998-99. The bulk of this fall is of local children under the age of 1 year. In 1998-99, there were only 60 adoptions of babies who were residents of Australia. There is a variety of reasons for this and the overall fall in adoption, which include the introduction of sole parent pensions, relaxed community attitudes towards ex-nuptial births, more effective birth control and the introduction of alternative legal orders which transfer permanent custody and guardianship of the child. The numbers of intercountry adoptions, on the other hand, have increased 400% since 1979-80. There were only 66 children adopted from other countries in that year compared with 244 in 1998-99. The majority of these children have been from South Korea, followed by India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Thailand. The number of 'known' child adoptions, where the child and the adoptive parents have a pre-existing relationship, have also fallen. This is due to changes in community services practices and community attitudes. Data on the Indigenous status of adopted children has only been collected since 1991-92. Of the 7,093 adoptions since 1991-92, only 61 or less than 1%, were of Indigenous children. This is not representative of the Indigenous children in the population which is estimated at 3% of all children aged 0-17. More understanding of Indigenous culture would be a main reason why there are so few Indigenous children adopted. Data on information exchange and contact vetoes have been collected since 1992-93. This is an important aspect of adoption, as it gives people who were party to an adoption the opportunity to obtain information about themselves or others.

    Session 2c: Walking a tightrope: therapeutic responses to family violence - workshop (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)

    Facilitators: Heather Roche, Jane Van der Stoel & Tom Griffiths, Relationships Australia — Victoria

    The presenters work therapeutically in a relationship counselling agency and their shared history of coming from the community sector with its sharp structural analysis has led them to explore how these two contexts influence their work. This has led them to explore how holding these different perspectives affects and enables the outcomes of the work as opposed to only holding one perspective. The work with violence in relationships highlights the complexity and argues against the desire for simplistic thinking or that there are 'right' or 'simple' interventions. The search for understanding has led us to believe that clarity is not always possible and that at times we have to sit with uncertainty. The work they present in this workshop is the result of their struggle to find ways of working between these two perspectives.
     

    Session 2d: Child residency litigation: processes and effects

    Session 2d (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Eric Baker, NAPCAN Australia
    Children's wishes in residence and contact disputes

    Historically, judges have had difficulty in coming to terms with the concept that children are able to express a rational and informed opinion n relation to their future custodial placement. Public opinion however, in recent years, has recognised not only that children are able to express their own views and opinion but also that childrens' wishes must be heard and taken into account in proceedings concerned with residence, guardianship and contact. In Australia, this approach has been adopted in s68F(2)(a). of the Family Law Act 1975.

    Research indicates that children from age seven are capable of expressing a choice between parents and of evaluating the respective environments which each has to offer. The research supports a rebuttable presumption that children aged seven are capable of making a considered decision, a decision in which reason is employed. A child's wishes must not only be considered, but must be shown to have been considered in the reasons for judgment of the trial Judge, in any determination of custody or access disputes. Furthermore, if the trial Judge decides to reject the wishes of a child, then clear and cogent reasons for such a rejection must be given. The wishes of children should not be discounted simply because they are expressed by children. The weight to be given to the wishes of a child depends upon the individual child and an assessment of the validity of the wishes must be made by the trial Judge in each individual case. Such an exercise will require a consideration of both the child's level of maturity and understanding. The goal is to take the wishes of children seriously by giving them careful, detailed consideration. To merely regard the wishes of children in a token manner, or to be dismissive of them, does not accord with the findings of psychologists as to the competence of children to express soundly based wishes and ignores the statutory requirements in many jurisdictions world-wide.

    I have not considered, for the purposes of this paper, questions of either manipulation or indoctrination of the children by one of the parents, for the reason that in most cases, such behaviour is readily identifiable and will form part of any psychiatric or psychological assessment of the family which may be carried out by a qualified expert. Counsellors, psychologists and psychiatrists must, in each case, endeavour to assess the level of maturity of each child and the extent to which the child may have been influenced by a parent. If this is done, the child's competence in regard to any wish expressed by him or her can be properly considered by trial Judges. This must result in decisions based, not only on proper principles, but reflecting where the best interests of the child lie.


    Session 2d (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Kristyn Kemp, Family Court of Australia & Peter Wilson, Flinders University of South Australia
    Efficiency, satisfaction, psychological adjustment, and self reported disadvantage after mediated or litigated child residency and contact disputes in the Family Court of Australia

    The study investigated whether the mediation service of the Family Court of Australia (directive/educative model) was able to provide an efficient and satisfying service and whether these benefits translated into improved psychological adjustment for parents and their children compared to litigation. The study also aimed to determine whether victims of violence were disadvantaged in mediation compared to nonabused participants. Participants were 115 families (mother/father/one child) who were mediating or litigating their disputes.

    Participants were assessed on 3 occasions:
    For efficiency of dispute resolution, results indicated that the mediation group waited fewer days for a mediation appointment, were more likely to obtain an agreement in mediation, spent less time in the system, and paid less money in legal fees compared to the litigation group. The content of outcome was unlikely to change for both groups and compliance with outcomes did not differ between the groups. The mediation group were more satisfied with their method of dispute resolution than the litigation group, specifically with regards to change in psychological adjustment over time, with parents and children in both groups showing a similar level of improvement after dispute resolution.

    There were no consistent differences between abused and nonabused participants in mediation (and litigation) for efficiency of service received, satisfaction, psychological adjustment, and self-reported disadvantage.

    It was concluded that the mediation service provides a more efficient and satisfying service for parents, but the benefits do not translate into improved psychological functioning for parents or their children compared to litigation and there was no evidence that mediation disadvantaged victims of violence.


    Session 2d (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Lawrie Moloney, La Trobe University
    Family Court Parenting Judgements as Social Narratives: An Empirical Analysis of Appeals relating to 'Finely Balanced' Published Judgements Delivered between 1988 and 1999

    This paper reports on a largely qualitative analysis of appeal judgements delivered between 1988 and 1999 and published electronically by the Family Court of Australia. Through the use of Boolean descriptors, electronic data of this sort permits a high level of confidence in the selection of case content with particular characteristics. The judgements selected were those which address child and parenting issues in "finely balanced" disputes. Excluded were judgements relating only to procedural issues or formal points of law, even if the judgement at first instance concerned itself with a finely balanced parenting dispute. Also excluded were cases in which matters such as violence, abuse or parental neglect were alleged.

    The focus of the analysis is on judgements as social narratives - that is, rather than examining how they demonstrate applications of the law, the research takes a social-constructivist approach to the judgements. From this perspective, the task of judges is to construct within judgements, a narrative of events which is internally consistent and which is capable of leading logically, even if not exclusively, to the conclusions contained in the court orders.

    The analysis also concerns itself with what values are privileged and what values are down-played or ignored in the service of the particular narrative. The research addresses the question of the extent to which the judgements reveal patterns of privileging around matters such as gender, social roles and behaviour; or the extent to which the expressed and implied values prove to be as individual as the judges and/or the cases themselves.
     

    Session 2e: Work and family

    Session 2e (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Susan Donath, The University of Melbourne
    Pipe and slippers or kitchen sink? Coming home from work

    In the idealized family of the 1950s, the smiling wife farewells her husband in the morning and, after his day of hard work, welcomes him home to dinner on the table and an evening of leisure. Does this picture in any way describe the current reality of Australian family life? This paper presents results from a secondary data analysis of the 1997 Australian Time Use Survey. Using data on married and defacto couples on days when at least one of the couple did paid work outside the home, the paper investigates gender differences in: time of leaving home for work, time of arriving home from work, whether a person's partner is still at home when they leave for work, whether a person's partner is already at home when they arrive home from work, activities in the last hour before leaving home for work and in the first hour after arriving home from work. The paper reports considerable gender differences in all these areas. Men are much more likely than women to have a partner at home when they leave for work and when they arrive home from work. Men are more likely to do no domestic tasks (food preparation, housework, laundry, gardening, pet care, child care) in the first hour after they arrive home from work than are women. Of those people who do some domestic tasks in the first hour at home women, on average, spend longer on these tasks than men. These results seem to indicate that for many Australian couples, family life is still structured in quite traditional ways.


    Session 2e (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Elizabeth Reid Boyd, Edith Cowan University
    'Being There': Mothers Who Stay at Home

    This paper is based upon my PhD research which has been carried out between 1996 and 2000. The focus of this research was mothers who stay at home to care for their children, in the context of the Australian child care debate between mothers at home and mothers at work. The research process included qualitative interviews with 20 mothers at home in suburban Perth and interviews with 'advocates' for mothers at home, such as Choice for Families, The Australian Family Association and Women's Action Alliance. It incorporated analysis of government policy which has affected mothers at home over the last five years, a media analysis and analysis of child rearing literature. I also examined the role and position of feminism in this debate, and explored the relationship between feminism and mothers at home.

    I argue that as a discourse, the child care debate operates as both a reflector and producer of the male and female, with powerful effects for the parameters of male and female responsibility for children. I argue that the apparent dichotomy between mothers at work and mothers at home is misleading, and disguises deeper divisions, what I call 'old divisions', the dualisms of work/care, public/private, productive/reproductive and male/female. These divisions constrain policy and practice, debates and imaginings about child care, but they do not accurately reflect the lived experience and desires of many mothers. However, because these divsions govern much of our discourse, this too is disguised.

    I argue that mothers staying at home, or ("being there" as over 75% of the mothers I interviewed termed it) is bio-social, dialectical and political and must be re-viewed as such, for new discussions, beyond division (beyond work/home, public/private and male/female) to take place. "Being there". I suggest, is a rhetoric of possibility.


    Session 2e (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Suzanne Higgins & Carol Morse, Victoria University
    Combining Parenting and Paid Work: sharing child care in dual income families

    First time parent couples are more likely to be a dual income family now than ever before. Existing literature details the transition to parenthood and provides snapshots about challenges in their lives but to date there is no story about their journey of combining parenting and paid work.

    This longitudinal study compares the experiences of single and two income couples on a range of variables including their relationship satisfaction, gender role beliefs, work spillover, division of household labour, division of child care and their satisfaction with family work division.

    Seventy couples were recruited into the study when their infant was between the ages of 3 and 15 months. Data was collected on 4 occasions over a 10 month period of time using valid and reliable measures collated into a booklet. Both men and women completed their booklets which were administered by mail.

    Two income couples were recruited prior to the mother's return to the paid workforce and data collection occurred on 3 occasions after. Preliminary results will be presented regarding the division of child care to determine if there is any change in 'who does what' when the mother returns to the paid work force. In addition data will be presented about the level of satisfaction with childcare division of labour and how participants would like it to be. Comparative data will be presented from single income families.
     

    Session 2f: Images and concepts of family

    Session 2f (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Vivienne Muller, Queensland University of Technology
    'Paper, scissors, rock' - images of American family suburban life in some films of the nineties

    Family structures have changed dramatically since the fifties. The emphasis is now on diversity, plurality and flexibility - a range of configurations f family life in the postmodern age. However, the fifties image of the idealised family life - a house in the suburbs, where a man is cosseted by his wife and children, still haunts our present age as much in advertising and other cultural representations as in the 'real' life organisations of social and gendered relationships. The image of course is Western, white, middle-class and heterosexualised, and its borders are strictly patrolled by this supportive ideology. In American society, the potency of the suburban ideal has generated a brace of films n the nineties that both satirically embrace and parodoxically condemn its limitations. At a time of social change in which individuality, freedom ad civil rights have become pre-eminent global issues, Edward Scissorhands, Pleasantville, The Truman Show and American Beauty expose the inadequacy of the 'perfect' family life as a solution to these concerns. In each of these filmic narratives the loss of individuality and freedom is the price paid for maintaining 'pleasantville'. However, the disruptive nature of repressed desires and the presence of the 'other/outsider' in these films unsettle the domestic idyll, and reveal the sometimes tragic consequences of attempt to salvage or sustain it.
     

    Session 2f (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Debbi Long, University of Adelaide
    Family Fluidity: Concepts of Family, Bodily Fluids and Connectedness

    This paper will be a work-in-progress discussion based on anthropological fieldwork currently being undertaken in the maternity unit of an Australian public hospital. The topic of the fieldwork is to explore meanings and understandings of the bodily fluids blood, milk and semen in the context of a reproductive (medical) environment.

    The theoretical framework used in examining ideas of family and kinship is an anthropological one, and therefore cross cultural. It calls on David Schneider's critique of kinship studies within anthropology, and is informed by the work of a number of 'kinship and gender' theorists, including Sylvia Yanagisako, Carol Delaney and Marilyn Strathern. The data will also be examined in the light of the presenter's previous fieldwork in a rural community in Turkey, where she researched concepts of milk kinship. The central trope running through the data on fluids (at the date of writing) is that bodily fluids offer connectedness, which is seen as family(like).

    This paper will explore concepts of family as they are expressed by members of the research community: couples having babies, their family and friends; and the health care workers who look after them. It will also discuss links between concepts of family and bodily fluids.


    Session 2f (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Peter West, University of Western Sydney
    From Tarzan to The Terminator: boys, men and body image

    After the sustained exploration of body image by women, writers like Dutton and Drummond are beginning to explore body image as it applied to men. Presentations of the male body are generally made for an audience. This audience can be gay men, or women (as in the 'Bachelor of the Year' contests in Cleo). There are also many ways of presenting male bodies in the context of sport, generally seen as non-sexual. Whatever the stated intention, the effect is that all these merge. Thus gay men admire Rugby League stars, and the same men are admired by women in a heterosexuial context.

    The paper builds on earlier work by West in which he explored ideas of 14 year old boys regarding bodies. The ideas seemed fairly simple, not inmappropriate to pubestent/prepubescent males. The current project has involved interviews with men between the ages of 15 and 50, and sometimes with their partners. Three contexts were envisaged: Bondi, Boggabri and Byron Bay. The thesis is masculinity is not immutable, but made in a context of time and place (West, 1996). Men were interviewed and asked a series of questions about themselves and their bodies. Further, they were asked to react to a series of images from the mass media.

    The project reveals a number of paradoxes. First, ideas of masculinity among some men were not vastly diferent from those among 14 year old males. Second, however much the text of advertisements and bodybuilding magazines argues for hard masculinity,the reality is that bodies are soft. Bodybuilders who take steroids can develop very soft and rather female bodies which are also shaved or waxed free of masculine-signifying hair on chests and legs.Third, however much the imagery speaks of 'rock-like abs' and so on, the reality is that (in Foucault's phrase) the body is a volume in a state of perpetual disintegration. Although the bodies are set in confident poses, the men and boys interviewed speak of huge fears - of not being masculine enough, sometimes of fear of being seen gay. almost all the men interviewed are afraid of ageing. And finally, although the fitness industry speaks of hard work, it serves the master of the visual imagery it produces. Image is all, reality is nothing.

    The paper asks how this data interfaces with theories of masculinity. It ends by asking questions about the underlying reasons for men's intense exploration of the beautiful body and seeks to understand the humanity behind this exploration.

    Session 2g: Issues in family policy research

    Session 2g (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Bill Muehlenberg, Australian Family Association
    The historicity & universality of the natural family

    Many modern detractors of the natural or traditional family claim that it is in fact of recent origin and not widely found throughout the world. Indeed, many claim it is a development of America society in the 1950s.

    This review of the research shows that what may be called the natural family is neither so recent nor so limited. Rather, it has been the primary social grouping throughout most cultures through most of human history.

    Not only is the traditional family the norm of much of human history, but the institution of marriage has also been the primary means by which couples relate and procreate. Marriage is not some middle class invention but the accepted means of regulating sexuality and reproduction in most cultures throughout most of history.

    The apologetic nature of this historical and sociological overview is emphasised. Critics of the natural family have not made their case nor supplied the evidence. This brief review shows that the natural family is not so easily dismissed.
     

    Session 2g (Monday 24th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Babette Francis, Endeavour Forum Inc
    Is gender a social construct or a biological imperative?

    The potentially tragic life of David Reimer, injured in a circumcision accident and subsequently brought up as a girl on the advice of 'gender researcher' Dr. John Money of Johns Hopkins Hospital, is an extreme example of the harm being done to many boys and girls by the theory that gender is a social construct and not a biological imperative. This policy implemented in child care centres, kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and tertiary education through feminist education policy focuses on 'eliminating sex-role stereotyping'. The assumption is that humans are not male or female but exist on some kind of continuum with a range of options in between or even outside the male/female parameter.

    At some UN Conferences feminists have suggested there are five or more genders. (and this would not surprise anyone who has been to a UN Conference...) The underlying feminist ideology is that psychologically and emotionally babies are little more than blobs of playdough on which a parent, teacher (or researcher/experimenter) can imprint whatever he or she chooses.

    Thus in the Child Care Accreditation Guidelines under the Federal Labor Government, child carers were warned not to tell a little girl that she has a pretty dress ( presumably it was acceptable to tell the boys they had pretty clothes) and to persuade the boys to play with the dolls' house. With this strategy it was hoped that the children would all grow up to be happy androgynous persons unconscious of their male/female identity. However, as the story of David Reimer reveals, policies of 'counter-sexism' are far more likely to produce unhappy, confused adolescents. 'Vive la difference' is a better recipe for a joyous society.


    Tuesday, July 25th, 9.00-10.30am

    Session 3a
    Session 3a: Why we think Good Beginnings is making a difference to children, families and the community - Symposium

    Discussant: Barbara Wellesley, Good Beginnings National Parenting Project

    To achieve its goal, the Good Beginnings National Parenting Project has researched, developed and tested a number of family centred programs and initiatives. For the Project to develop the strong family and community links identified in current literature as so necessary to strengthen families and neighbourhoods, the family centred approach (building on strengths, not weaknesses) is central to its success. The rapid expansion of Good Beginnings has provided a challenge to test and develop alternative models that are cost effective without jeopardising quality.

    Good Beginnings undertakes a variety of programs that build on the strengths of families with babies and young children. These programs work to meet families' needs for information on local services, child development, friendship and social support indifferent settings. Good Beginnings operates programs that promote strong cohesive communities. The planning and development of these programs is based on needs identified by local communities and agencies. Good Beginnings develops and values the support of local professional services and community groups, encouraging a partnership approach for programs.

    Due to the diverse range of activities undertaken, Good Beginnings is developing and testing service strategies based on known best practices that assist in building collaborative community partnerships to ensure children and their parents have access to a range of services in their local community and ideally in the same locations, to enable valuable resources to be shared and to increase the capacity of the partnerships to attract corporate funds.

    A key component of Good Beginnings is the creation of a marketing and fundraising strategy that will enable the continuation and expansion of Good Beginnings Parenting Projects. Lack of ongoing funding and resources has been the downfall of many community service activities. Good Beginnings acknowledges the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of programs and to this end has been externally evaluated and is in the process of designing a database which will reflect activities from a wide range of community based programs. The importance of developing and maintaining creative partnerships across the board is a key strategy and one of the great strengths of Good Beginnings. These partnerships include relationships with like-minded professionals, researchers, community agencies and at all levels of government. Equally critical to the success of the program is the business and corporate partnerships being developed.

    In this symposium, three papers will be presented using the Good Beginnings experiences from across the country.


    Session 3a (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Jenny Scharer-Smith, Good Beginnings National Parenting Project
    The importance of using a community development model when considering service delivery in high needs communities.

    This paper discusses processes used by Good Beginnings in two very different locations and the positive results achieved. The results point to the importance of using a community development model when considering service delivery in high needs communities.


    Session 3a (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Paul Prichard, Good Beginnings National Parenting Project
    The relationship between volunteer and professional workers in providing support to families with young children who are experiencing difficulties

    This paper outlines the complimentary nature of the differing roles, the strength of linkages between the volunteer and professional worker and the positive outcomes for the families as a result of this relationship.
     

    Session 3a (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Rosemary Sinclair & Barbara Wellesley, Good Beginnings National Parenting Project
    Good Beginnings National Parenting Project

    The strategies that, in our experience, are critical to program sustainability include positioning the program though fundraising and marketing, evaluation, data design, and community, government and business partnerships.
     

    Session 3b: Child Care

    Session 3b (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    John Powlay & Liza Carroll, Department of Family and Community Services
    Child Care Affordability

    Child care affordability is an issue concerning many Australian families. This paper will examine the changing environment of child care and factors that contribute to child care affordability including, workforce participation, child care fees and government assistance. Over recent years, there have been reports that have indicated that affordability of child care is a major concern for many Australian families.

    The provision of government assistance to assist families with the cost of child care for low and middle income families is a critical factor to assist families in their choice of child care. Fees charged by child care centres are influenced by a variety of factors such as changes in wages, charging practices, changes in State regulations and increases in overheads such as rates.

    The effect of government assistance not keeping pace with fee increases has meant that from 1995-1999, the percentage of disposable income going to child care costs has increased, albeit slightly. The increase has been in the order of 2-5% of disposable income, varying according to income levels, sectors and different geographical locations. The extent to which this change may have led to significant behavioural changes in labour market participation is unclear, as the labour force participation rate of mothers with dependent children aged under 15 has remained steady at 58%-59%, between January 1996 and January 2000, seasonally adjusted.

    There are other factors such as personal income tax rates, impact of social security entitlements, other costs associated with working, labour market factors and lifestyle choices which may also contribute to labour market participation. Some writers have also suggested that increased child care costs and reduced affordability has pushed women out of the labour force or reduced their use of formal child care. The extent to which changes in affordability have contributed to significant changes in formal child care usage is also unclear.

    Many of the changes in the usage patterns of child care may be the result of an increase in the availability of part-time work. This paper will provide some analysis of the current situation in child care and will consider the impact of the new Child Care Benefit on the affordability of child care.
     

    Session 3b (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Sarah Wise, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    AIFS study of early childcare in Australian multi-cultural society: A research plan
    The AIFS study of early childcare in Australian multicultural society aims to direct new knowledge to the design of early childhood services which are sensitive to the needs of a multicultural society by investigating child care experiences of children from four different ethnic groups. The study goes beyond a narrow concern with main effects of childcare to examine whether children do better in childcare that is characteristic of the cultural orientation of the home, and how children cope when there are substantial differences between home and childcare settings. Further, the study aims to delineate roles and responsibilities ascribed to family and non-parental care in child development so as to ascertain whether the childcare system is meeting current expectations. Parental perceptions of what comprises good quality childcare, and their ratings of their childís current care will be examined to test whether the Anglo-Australian definition of 'quality care' is ethno specific. Objective assessments will also be made of childcare arrangements in terms of the childcare attributes that have been associated in the literature with good quality childcare, and in terms of child outcomes.

    Adopting a more sociological perspective, the study also seeks to understand the child, family and cultural determinants of childcare experience in order to understand whether children from different social and cultural backgrounds use particular types of childcare and experience childcare in different ways (eg. earlier initiation, longer hours). The impacts of childcare choices on key familial outcomes (eg. stress, community attachment) will also be explored.

    The research involves an in-depth study of approximately 400 children 0-3 years attending day care (community-based and private), family day care, or receiving care from nannies across four cultural communities- Middle Eastern, Asian, Italian and Anglo-Australian. The paper provides a summary of the research plan, including specific aims of the research and their theoretical and policy relevance, and the design strategy together with sampling plan, subject recruitment, and approaches to measurement.


    Session 3b (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Sue Leppert, UnitingCare Australia
    Implications of Government Funding Cuts on Child Care - UnitingCare Long Day Care Centres

    UnitingCare Australia's research into the impact of government funding and policy changes on UnitingCare child care centres complements other community endeavours to supply 'hard', factual evidence of changes experienced in community based long day care since 1 July 1997. The research was conducted from November 1999 to March 2000. Forty eight UnitingCare long day care centres were surveyed, and thirty two centres in Queensland, NSW, Victoria and SA responded. Questionnaires targeted centre staff, and parents who had been using the centre since before changes were introduced.

    Preliminary findings indicate that overwhelmingly, increased fees were a serious concern for the majority of parents, with about 40% of all parents making significant changes to their working and/or child care arrangements. Over the period in question, centres have undergone many changes in order to accommodate resource constraints. Parent respondents observed higher staff turnover, an increased use of casual staff over the period, a greater need for fundraising to supplement income, a reduction in the number of outings, the introduction of mixed aged groups, and the introduction of charges for, or total removal of, nappy or food services.

    However, parent respondents were still able to comment favourably on the quality of care provided at centres, and many applauded their centres for maintaining high quality service despite the obvious increased pressures. The evidence from staff supports this picture. Overall, the number of full time child care places is declining, with 91% of staff reporting a significant increase in the number of part time places. This means a larger number of children to care for, and more parents with whom to build relationships. Observations included difficulty in getting 'part-time' children settled, especially those children who were being cared for in several different locations each week (70% of respondents noted that a significantly higher number of families were now using a mix of child care, compared to 2-3 years ago).

    Nearly 40% of staff respondents reported a reduction in staff numbers to the bare minimum of child:staff ratios, noting especially a reduction in support staff, ëfloatersí, and ancillary staff such as cleaners and gardeners. Staff workloads, therefore, have increased since removal of operational subsidy on 1 July 1997, and related activities such as professional development and program planning are now often undertaken 'out of hours', with training courses sometimes only accessible if staff are willing to meet the costs personally.

    The implications of these and other observed changes are manifold for children, their families and the communities in which they live, workloads and professional aspirations of direct care staff, and child care administration and planning generally. The paper further explores the wider consequences of these changes, and suggests a social policy response.
     

    Session 3c: Marriage Education

    Session 3c (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Terrance Olson, Brigham Young University, USA
    Marital conflict and self-deception: Educational interventions

    It may be possible to invite more of those caught in seemingly inescapable destructive conflicts simply to give them up. Such a possibility exists if individuals can deceive themselves about the meaning of the relationship conflict in the first place. Then the solutions are not grounded in gaining knowledge, skill, insight or new habits, because the individual deceives him or herself about the nature of the problem in the first place.

    A case has been made for the possibility of self-deception (Warner, 1997). In this view, people who are self-deceived are systematically perverting their own beliefs about the world, including their moral beliefs about how to treat others. An early sketch of this theory (Warner & Olson, 1981) has served as the foundation for marriage education programs (Family Harmony, 1985; FamilyWorks, 1993) and for a public school family life education and character curriculum (AANCHOR, 1982). More recently, the concept has been used to generate a unique business seminar on relationships (Berrett-Koehler, 2000).

    If it is possible for persons to pervert their own personal moral experience, it is possible to give up the deceptions they create. When people give up their self-deceptions, the quality of their attitudes and feelings changes. For example, for the self-deceived person, 'The way they see the problem is the problem.' When the self-deceived view of the problem is given up, many of the supposed reasons for the relationship conflict disintegrate, and the remaining problems (perhaps grounded in ignorance, incompetence or lack of insight), can be addressed.

    This paper presents the conceptual framework and a variety of empirical results which suggest that this approach to relationship education has promise, and can be extrapolated to a variety of educational, therapeutic and business contexts.


    Session 3c (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Robyn Parker, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Marriage and relationship research and education in Australia - where to from here?

    In the past few years, creating and sustaining strong and resilient marriages and families has become a more prominent focus of government policy (via the National Families Strategy). Relatedly, researchers are directing their energies towards identifying and exploring the characteristics of strong families (eg the University of Newcastle Family Action Centre's 'Family Strengths Project') and marriages (the Australian Institute of Family Studies study, 'Marital Perspectives'). In the search for ways to promote and sustain stable and well functioning families, the long-established field of marriage and relationship education is receiving attention from both government and academics that is well overdue. This paper will attempt to integrate recent developments in the study of marriage and relationships in general and the field of marriage and relationship education in particular, and discuss the implications of those developments for future research, practice, and the formulation of social policy.
     


    Session 3d: Co-parenting after divorce

    Session 3d (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Lisbeth Pike, Edith Cowan University
    Single Mum or single Dad? The effects of parent residency arrangements on the development of primary school-aged children

    Research describing the effects of parental separation or divorce on children has tended to examine the effects of custody (residency) arrangements on children without differentiating between the gender of the parent and the gender of the child. Typically, studies have examined child outcomes where the residential parent is the mother. Very few studies have examined child outcomes where the father is the residential parent, or compared child outcomes for children of both genders resident with either their mothers or fathers. The prevailing wisdom has been that boys will be disadvantaged and girls advantaged when the custodial parent is the mother and the reverse when the custodial parent is the father. This concept has been described in the literature as the same sex tradition.

    This paper presents the findings of a study which examined the effects of different parent residency arrangements on the growth of competence and self-esteem in primary school-aged children of both genders resident with parents of both genders. These single parent children were also matched and compared with children from two parent families. In all there were 272 participants in the study, 136 single parent children (72 girls and 64 boys) and 136 two parent children. Child outcomes assessed were academic competence (Wide Range Achievement Test (Revised), Jastak, 1984), self-esteem, (Self-Perception Profile for Children, Harter, 1985) social support (Social Support Scale for Children Harter, 1985) and everyday skills (Everyday Household Responsibilities Life Skills Inventory, Amato, 1986).

    Results showed that overall the single parent children's scores on the dependent measures were average or above and there were very few statistically significant differences between single parent and two parent children on these measures. Results also suggest that it is not necessarily advantageous for single parent children to raised by a parent of the same gender. Implications from the study will be discussed.


    Session 3d (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Anna Byas, Flinders University of South Australia
    Post-separation parenting - what's law got to do with it?

    After separating, how do most parents get on with parenting and with each other? Family law now states that separated parents should co-operate and agree with each other when making arrangements for their children and that parenting responsibilities should be 'shared'. But are the expectations of the law realistic? Are they in tune with the practices and perceptions of separated parents? Does it matter? That is, do such family law guidelines really have much influence on what the majority of parents think or do?

    This paper outlines a qualitative research project designed to answer such questions. The study analyses the diversity of practices, preferences and perceptions among separated/divorced parents and examines the relationships and arrangements of more mainstream and low-conflict parents. It is now timely for such broadbased 'bottom-up' research, in order to discover the wealth of interpretations given to these new legal guidelines, by a wide range of separated parents, many of whom undoubtedly 'dabble' with family law services. This knowledge will hopefully complement the recent evaluative research on the impact of such reforms within the Australian legal setting or as perceived by legal and psycho-social professionals.

    It is anticipated that this study will highlight the diversity of parenting styles and beliefs and, importantly, glean insights into parents' idiosyncratic notions of fairness and justice about parenting after separation. Preliminary findings from interviews will be presented. Data of this nature could make a valuable contribution to debates about the positive and negative possibilities for the rather simplistic and indeterminate, if well meaning, legal blueprint for shared parenting after separation.

    The paper will draw together theoretical threads from recent qualitative studies and locate the current study within the increasingly post-structuralist approach to analysis of 'the family' and family law reform.
     

    Session 3d (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Paul Murphy, The University of Western Australia & Janice Dickinson, Anglicare
    'Mums and Dads Forever': A Cooperative Parenting Initiative

    'Mums and Dads Forever': A Cooperative Parenting Initiative
    This paper reports on an innovative co-parenting education and support initiative being piloted by Anglicare in Perth, Western Australia. The project was conceived as a way of:
    • supporting separated parents by teaching them new skills,
    • facilitating and encouraging a cooperative post-separation parenting relationship with a former partner, and
    • reducing the reliance on the Family Court of Western Australia to resolve disputes concerning Contact Orders.

    The programme consists of a three-hour general information forum, up to four one-hour individual counselling sessions, and a six-week workshop programme.

    This paper reports the formative evaluation of the first three workshops. Half of the twenty participants were referred to the programme by the Family Court, a high proportion had been separated for less than twelve months, and all had difficulties establishing a cooperative parenting relationship with their former partner.

    The workshops examine topics such as individual differences, issues of grief and loss in relationships, different parenting styles, the effect of parental separation on children, the children's reactions, and possible ways of addressing these issues. All the participants in the first workshop were men and it became evident that this group composition did not stimulate balanced discussion. The second two workshops included both men and women, and the evaluation feedback suggested that these groups experienced more positive interaction which they considered highly beneficial. The formative evaluation indicates that, although this initiative is very useful, it is not sufficient of itself. In most cases, people require continuing support and guidance as they seek to re-establish their lives and their new post-separation parenting roles.
     

    Session 3e: Work and family vs business reality

    Session 3e (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Lauren Reader, Department of Premier and Cabinet, Vic
    Business Versus Bath-time: The Work and Family Report

    The paper will present the findings of 'Business versus Bath-time' - The Work and Family Report, a qualitative report of the Office of Women's Policy, Victoria. The report examines:
    1. The types of family friendly policies and practices available in Victorian public and private industry sectors.
    2. The issues women (and men) face in the workplace when accessing an organisation's family friendly policies.

    The project commenced in April 1998, and underwent significant revision in scope and focus during its initial stages. The report was completed in February 2000 and the Office of Women's Policy expects to publish the report by mid-2000. The report contains a literature review and data obtained from focus group discussion and brief questionnaires.

    Key findings of the report include: - a number of barriers still exist in achieving a satisfactory outcome of balancing work and family life, such as organisational culture and attitudes, employment conditions, and industry sector. - negotiation within workplace agreements and enterprise agreements can be disadvantageous to women, particularly women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, and women with disabilities; - many organisations have no (or very few) formalised family friendly policies available for the use of their employees, with resulting disadvantages for employees and the organisation; - employees who utilise family friendly practices to achieve a work and family balance often experience a negative effect on their career, including unsatisfactory outcomes after utilising maternity leave (such as job review or dissolution), a fear of losing job quality, less access to training, and a lack of promotion and bonus opportunities; - the most highly sought after provisions that participants in the study would like made available in their workplace were: working from home; support for and/or access to childcare (including school holiday care); variable full time and part time work; and work and family information.


    Session 3e (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Lee Wightman, Department of Human Services (SA) & Don Edgar, Centre For Workplace Culture Change
    What about small business?

    Research indicates that Australian families are having difficulty in balancing their work and family responsibilities. Large corporations have the capacity to implement a range of measures to assist employees but small businesses do not. In South Australia 80% of the workforce is employed in small to medium sized businesses. How are these employees to be assisted in regard to balancing their work and family responsibilities?

    This paper will report on the development of a pilot project in South Australia which addresses this question. The project uses a community development approach to assisting small-medium sized businesses respond to their employees needs in balancing work and family responsibilities.

    Based on work undertaken by Dr. Don Edgar as part of the Newlinks Workplace Project, the pilot project is to be implemented in the Barossa Valley. It will test the assumption that better work and family outcomes for employees in small business will result from improved linkages between small business, big business, the community and the community services sector.

    The project is being undertaken by the South Australian Department of Human Services and Business Vision 2010 Inc, an initiative of the South Australian Employers Chamber of Commerce and Industry.


    Session 3e (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Prue Warrilow, Susan Biggs & Jennifer Ng, Families at Work
    Learning to think flexibly? The reality versus the rhetoric of flexible work practices
     
    This paper builds on a presentation made by Susan Biggs in 1998 at the AIFS conference in Melbourne with the preliminary findings for one company presented. The research was conducted in 1998/99 with 3 companies who had been recognised as best practice by the Business Council of Australia and Financial Review Work and Family Awards. Research was conducted through interviews with representatives from each organisation's human resources division, unions, employees through focus group participation and individual employees who were utilising some type of flexible workplace policy. The significant findings were:
    • there is a distinction for employees between working flexibly and using flexible work practices;
    • trust between the employee, manager and organisation is essential if workplace flexibility is to work;
    • workplace change and ways of working impacted greatly on whether employees thought they could use flexible work practices and the type of flexibility used;
    • the need to manage flexibly- employees who worked flexibly were not provided with the same opportunities as those who did not use flexible work practices;
    • inflexible systems impacted through work practices, the actual systems and the workplace infrastructure;
    • long hours were an impediment to working n a flexile manner;
    • prominent theme expressed by all the organisations was that flexible work policies are great but if managers are not prepared to think flexibly, they are of little use;
    • employees talked about the lack of education that managers had to ensure they could manage alternate work practices. Managers talked about how hard it is to manage employees all working in different ways and how it is easier for them if everyone is working the same way.

    Strategies that were identified to help organisations provide flexibility included the following:
    • identifying the link between customer service and flexibility;
    • integrating flexibility training into effective management of employee development;
    • increasing employee awareness and skills on how to work more flexibly;
    • working towards a reasonable number of working hours;
    • organising a campaign to highlight that employees who have flexible arrangement are hard working dedicated staff and
    • running and education campaign to ensure that workers without family responsibilities do not feel disadvantaged and make sure they have equal access to flexibility.
    Session 3f: Constructing meanings and identities in child protection practice - Workshop (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)

    Facilitator: Heather D'Cruz, Deakin University

    Child maltreatment is a major professional concern, particularly when children may die or suffer serious injuries, sexual trauma or deprivation. Child protection policy and practice aim to minimise risk of harm to children by working from a perspective that child maltreatment is an objectively real entity which knowledgeable persons, like social workers, can identify easily. Associated with this perspective is the view that identities called 'persons believed responsible' are also identifiable, as 'dangerous persons', being easily differentiated from those who are 'not dangerous'.

    This workshop will present an alternative view that 'child maltreatment' and the 'person believed responsible' are socially constructed meanings and identities. The social constructionist perspective takes the view that there are different meanings given to children's experiences, which the dominant perspective tends to reduce to a few 'types of maltreatment'. Similarly, the 'person believed responsible' is also not necessarily a shared perspective of identity between different participants in the intervention process. It is important to emphasise that the realities of harm to children are not in dispute here.

    Case studies will show how the meanings of 'what happened' to children and 'who was responsible' are processes of construction and negotiation between different participants, within particular family and practice contexts. Data are from a PhD thesis, Constructing Meanings and Identities in Child Protection Practice.

    Target audience: policy makers and practitioners, human service academics
    Knowledge/experience: as required for the occupational positions of the target audience
    Structure of session: Introduce the theoretical perspective.
    Discuss selected cases (extracts from files and interviews with workers), drawing out the theoretical issues for child protection practice
    Number of participants: 20 (maximum)
     

    Session 3g: Community formation and capacity building

    Session 3g (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    April Lawrie-Smith & Sally Castell-McGregor, Department of Human Services, South Australia
    Manufactured communities: sick land - sick people

    'We come from red sand country, we are now on white sand, this is not our country, this country makes us sick.'(Report on the Royal Commission into the Maralinga Bombing - Quote from Mr Hughie Windlass, Senior Man, Aboriginal Elder, Custodian and Traditional Owner of the Maralinga Lands).

    The history of dispossession of Aboriginal people in South Australia has resulted in established and well functioning communities being forcibly removed from traditional land, relocated in alien and foreign localities, away from camping sites, traditional ties, songlines and water holes. One such community in South Australia who herald from the Western Desert Cultural bloc and have over the past fifty years have been constantly displaced; first from Maralinga Land's due to Atomic testing; relocated to Yalata and then to various camp sites along the West Coast, finally ending up in Ceduna at 8 Kuhlmann Street. The history of the Kuhlmann Street mob presents a microcosmic portrait of all that has gone wrong since white possession of Aboriginal land. The history reflects the inherent racism of the white dominant culture with its philosophy of 'out of sight out of mind'. An added strain to the scenario is the tension between urban Aboriginal people and traditional visitors.

    The Anangu residents of number 8 Kuhlmann Street, Ceduna reflect the extreme social disadvantage of Aboriginal people in Australia, with high levels of injuries and accidents, hospitalisations, high alcohol consumption, poor health and shortened life span. Until recently, services have failed to respond to their needs and to the needs of traditional homeless and transient people living or staying in urban environments elsewhere in South Australia.

    This paper tells the story of how the Aboriginal Services Division of the Department of Human Services in partnership with Aboriginal and mainstream organisations has successfully implemented a new approach to the recognition and delivery of service needs to traditional Anangu in Ceduna and surrounding areas. The story tells how a Human Rights and Social Justice framework that recognises the integrity of the Aboriginal voice, Aboriginal traditional healing, Aboriginal kinship, inter-relationship with the land and respect of the wisdom of Elders, has led to an integrated service system, which for the first time in fifty years, treats Anangu with dignity and respect.


    Session 3g (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Robyn Seth-Purdie, Department of Family and Community Services
    Accumulated adversity and human capital formation: implications for social policy
    Data collected independently from health, education and welfare sectors show that accumulated exposure to 'adversity' is a key factor in predicting negative outcomes in physical and mental health, educational achievement, labour market participation, illness and disability in middle age and long term dependence on welfare receipt. Data from the Christchurch longitudinal study (Christchurch Study on Health and Development) provides Australasian data in support of the proposition that accumulating adversity affects the likelihood of welfare receipt. The cross-sectoral data suggests that the development and maintenance of human capital (defined to include the sum total of an individual's physical, psychological, and economic capabilities) is seriously affected by exposure to multiple risk factors/an accumulation of adverse circumstances, particularly those occurring in early childhood. The implications for social policy that seeks to emphasis prevention, early intervention and investment in human capital formation, are explored.
     

    Session 3g (Tuesday 25th 9.00-10.30 am)
    Dimi Giorgas, Australian National University
    Community Formation and Social Capital in Australia

    An ethnic community's social capital encompasses resources available to an individual through their membership in that community or group. It involves the shared feelings of social belonging that enable groups to set up institutions and other networks that members can access. Social capital in these communities exists in the social relations among parents, between parents and their children and their relationship with the institutions of the community.

    This paper explores ethnic community formation and social capital among six groups: Germans, Dutch, Hungarians, Poles, Italians and Greeks. It argues that social capital within the family is particularly important in overcoming deficiencies in other forms of capital; although it can only be successfully utilised when close relations exist between parents and children. Thus cultures that place greater emphasis on the family and are collectivist in nature, such as Greeks and Italians, are more likely to utilise social capital. In contrast cultures that have an individualistic focus, for example, Germans and Hungarians, are more likely to under-invest in social capital.

    Moreover, social closure is important for social capital to be effectively facilitated. Closure helps facilitate norms and creates trustworthiness, allowing for the proliferation of obligations and expectations. In an open community, groups are less able to sanction behaviour because of the absence of mobilising forces and reduced consensus in regards to standards (Coleman 1988: S106-107).

    Overall, the findings of this paper suggest that ethnic community formation has served as a positive strategy for immigrants in overcoming social isolation and economic difficulties by providing employment opportunities and a sense of familial surroundings within their own ethnic group. Social capital is utilised more effectively by groups with stronger cultural boundaries and a collective sense of identity.


    Tuesday, July 25th, 1.30-3.00pm


    Session 4a: Issues in child abuse and protection

    Session 4a (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    David McConnell & Gwynnyth Llewellyn, University of Sydney
    Parental Disability and Statutory Child Protection Proceedings

    This presentation reports findings of a study investigating Process and outcomes for parents with disabilities and their children involved in statutory child protection proceedings. Court files were reviewed for 407 consecutive cases finalised over a nine-month period in the NSW Children's Court. Interviews and focus groups were conducted involving all eight specialist children's magistrates, 34 legal representatives and 155 child protection officers. In addition, 35 days were spent in the courtroom observing proceedings. The study found that close to one-third of all care matters initiated by the Department of Community Services, NSW, involved parents with formerly diagnosed disabilities. A significant association was found between parental disability and court outcomes. Notably, children of parents with intellectual disability were subject to a disproportionately large number of wardship orders. Critical factors influencing court outcomes will be discussed. These include 'expert' assessment, parent compliance, the suitability of support services and advocacy.


    Session 4a (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Patrick O'Leary, University of South Australia
    Gender Differences in Disclosure and Predicting Psychological Outcomes

    The aim of the study was to identify any gender similarities and differences in disclosure, and how details of the child sexual assault predict later psychological outcomes. A telephone survey of one hundred and ninety one people (151 females and 40 males) who responded to a sexual assault survey in Victoria, Australia reported that they were sexually assaulted while under the age of eighteen.

    Respondents reported details about the nature of the sexual assault experience, disclosure details and psychological effects they attributed to the assault. Multiple regression analysis was performed with psychological effects as the dependent.

    The effect of gender on length of time to disclosure was also examined using an independent samples t-test. In the case of males, psychological effects were best predicted by, the number of physical injuries, disclosure at the time of the assaults and frequency of assault. In the case of females, a lesser amount of variance in psychological effects could be accounted for and different predictor variables were statistically significant.

    Generally, both females and males reported an inadequate response to their disclosure. Males were equally likely to disclose at the time of the sexual assault, but they took significantly longer to discuss their experiences. On average it took ten years for men to feel they had discussed the experience, whereas for females it took under ten years.

    Results of the study identify gender differences in the predictors of distress. These predictor variables should be incorporated into therapeutic assessment interviews. The importance of an appropriate response at the time of disclosure is also highlighted.


    Session 4a (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Karen Fisher, Cathy Thompson & Marilyn McHugh, Social Policy Research Centre
    The Link between Children's Services and Child Protection: The Perspective of Directors of Children's Services

    The NSW Department of Community Services (DoCS) Office of Childcare commissioned the Social Policy Research Centre in 1999 to examine the relationship between children's services for children under school age and the DoCS child protection function. The project also investigated the effectiveness of children's services as a protection and prevention strategy for abuse and neglect. The study comprised three components: a literature review, a survey of directors of children's services and focus groups with workers in child protection and children's services. The survey with directors of children's services included questions on details of children at risk of abuse and neglect placed in a service as well as the effectiveness of communication with DoCS from initial placement through to case closure.
    The survey contained a number of open-ended questions in relation to children at risk, including:

    • whether the care differed from care given to other children;
    • record keeping in the service;
    • adequacy of meeting needs of children from Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander and non-English speaking backgrounds and children with a disability;
    • demands on primary contact carers;
    • training in child protection;
    • prevention programs;
    • abuse in care; and,
    • the effectiveness of a placement as both a prevention and protection strategy.

    This paper will review the findings from the survey of directors of children's services highlighting some of the strengths and weaknesses of the present system from the perceptions of workers in the field.


    Session 4b: Fathers' role in families: barriers and opportunities

    Session 4b (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Maggie Walter, University of Tasmania
    Australian Unwed Fathers: What is their relationship with their Children? What factors impede or facilitate their level of parental involvement?

    Modern western fatherhood is a paradox of competing images. While the importance of fathers to children and the unique value of father's role is increasingly recognised the number of fathers who no longer live with their children is escalating. While most one parent families occur through marital breakdown, child bearing and marriage are also increasingly separated. Over the last 30 years, Australia has seen a dramatic rise in the number of ex-nuptial births. The proportion of ex-nuptial to nuptial births rose from 6 percent in 1963 to 28 percent in 1997 and the trend continues upward.

    Despite the growing interest overseas in research and policy implications of unmarried fathers and their parental involvement, Australian empirical knowledge in this area is virtually non-existent. Australia is socially similar to other western countries but we cannot assume overseas research findings are transferable or relevant. Australia has significantly different ex-nuptial birth and paternity acknowledgment patterns and Australian social policies contribute to a singularly Australian set of social conditions. The uniqueness of the Australian situation poses important questions. While we can approximate the numbers of unwed fathers, we know very little else about this group.

    This research will test the hypothesis that increased ex-nuptial births results in increased numbers of children being raised without significant paternal involvement. The major aims of the project are to establish the social, economic, personal and cultural characteristics of Australian unwed non-residential fathers and examine the level of parental involvement these fathers have with their children. Additionally, the research plans to investigate the factors that work to constrain or enhance father's ability to assume active and responsible roles in their children's lives.
     

    Session 4b (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Helen McKeering, Jan Nicholson & George van der Heide, Queensland University of Technology; Kenneth I. Pakenham, The University of Queensland & Owen Pershouse, MENDS Program
    Separated fathers' parenting: aspirations and obstacles
     
    Fathers' parenting post separation has historically been sparsely researched except in the context of deficit or absentee parenting. However, over the past 15 years in Australia, there has been an increasing interest in research, public debate, and services focusing on separated and divorced fathers, resulting in national conferences targeting men's health and men's relationships. This upsurge in interest in men's parenting post-separation, has been driven by societal factors and public health concerns.

    Separated fathers' reaction to the breakdown of the marital relationship and loss of the parental role, is often manifest in a number of psycho-physical health problems, at times resulting in suicide. Separated men are 6 times more likely to suicide than married men. In Australia, there are over 52,000 divorces per annum, involving over 28,000 children (ABS, 1996) with marriage breakdown increasing.

    Common post separation arrangements result in many fathers being precluded from daily care of their children. Therefore, strengthening and supporting child/father ties, has become a priority. To facilitate this aim, it is necessary to understand separated fathers' parenting aspirations, and their perceptions of the obstacles which prevent them from effectively parenting their children. This study employed a qualitative research strategy to determine context-specific concerns of 23 separated fathers in the Brisbane metropolitan area.

    Topics discussed included separated fathers' perceptions of their parenting role; and the obstacles and stressors that impinged on their fathering role. Fathers' aspirations to continue their role as nurturers, guides, and educators of their children were highlighted. Fathers also identified barriers to achieving these aims such as inflexible access arrangements; time constraints; and their fathering role being undermined by conflict with institutions and the ex-partner over parenting issues. Fathers' perceptions of societal and institutional double standards regarding the importance of parenting to separated fathers and mothers, will be discussed.
     

    Session 4b (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Katherine Wilson, Melbourne University and The Victorian Parenting Centre
    Father Involvement With Pre-school and School Aged Children: Motivators and Barriers

    The aim of the study was to examine maternal and paternal beliefs about the parenting responsibilities of fathers of children in the early and middle years of childhood. a secondary aim was to obtain measures of what parenting is actually done by fathers on a day to day basis. Motivators and barriers to father involvement (FI) were also explored. In addition, perceptions of maternal support for involved fathering, satisfaction with current involvement, confidence in paternal parenting ability and knowledge, and beliefs about the outcome efficacy of FI were evaluated. FI was conceptualised as including the dimensions of engagement, availability, and responsibility (Lamb, 1997), plus time spent in sole responsibility. FI includes care in the physical, emotional, social, educational and financial domains. The present paper will present preliminary data from an ongoing study of 100 intact families containing two or more children aged 3 to 11 years. Participating mothers and fathers were given individual structured home interviews of approximately 75 minutes, followed by an involvement questionnaire completed jointly. Discussion regarding the development of a model to explain FI will be provided.


    Session 4c: Partnerships Against Domestic Violence - Workshop (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)

    Facilitators: Dianne Heriot & Tricia Szirom, Office of the Status of Women

    In November 1997, Heads of Government launched Partnerships Against Domestic Violence (Partnerships).

    Partnerships is concerned with building a strategic collaboration between the Commonwealth, States and Territories, in consultation with the community sector, to test new approaches to domestic violence, to enhance and share knowledge and develop and document good practice in preventing and responding to domestic violence. It aims to do this by conducting a wide range of projects designed to stimulate new developments as well as enhance existing programs.

    Six priority themes have been identified as the focus for projects funded under Partnerships over the next few years:
    • Working with children and young people to break the cycle of violence between generations.
    • Working with adults to break patterns of violence; working with victims and perpetrators.
    • Working with the community, educating against violence.
    • Protection of the Law.
    • Information and best practice.
    • Helping people in rural and remote communities.

    In the 1999-2000 Budget, the Commonwealth committed a further $25 million to domestic violence prevention to build on and extend the work of Partnerships. Priority areas are: children affected by domestic violence, family violence in indigenous communities; perpetrators of domestic violence; and community education.

    Dr Dianne Heriot, the Director of the Partnerships Taskforce Secretariat, located within the Commonwealth Office of the Status of Women, will discuss the importance of the Partnerships initiative for policy development and practice. Dr Tricia Szirom, the lead consultant with Strategic Partners, the consultants undertaking the meta evaluation of Partnerships will discuss the key issues and learnings emerging from the initiative to date.
     


    Session 4d: Redefining Family Law

    Session 4d (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Belinda Fehlberg & Bruce Smyth, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Pre-nuptial agreements in Australia; past, present and future

    Currently in Australia, married couples cannot enter into legally binding agreements about their financial affairs until after their marriage has broken down. The effect of the Family Law Amendment Bill 1999 (Cth), if enacted, would be to allow couples to enter legally binding pre-nuptial agreements before and during their marriage, as well as after divorce. Drawing on Australian and overseas evidence, including empirical research, the authors argue that the stated policy objectives for the introduction of pre-nuptial agreements, and the draft provisions, do not adequately recognise and address the vulnerabilities likely to be experienced by women who enter such agreements and their dependent children.
     

    Session 4d (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Susan Armstrong, University of Western Sydney, Nepean
    The children's provisions and the violence provisions in the Family Law Act: incompatible and inconsistent?

    Recent research into the impact of the new children's and violence provisions introduced by the Family Law Reform Act 1995 indicates that, in the context of decisions about children, the violence provisions are having only limited practical effect. This outcome has been attributed to a number of factors, including the possible effect of the s60B principle which states that a child has a right to contact. Although introduced as part of the same legislative package, the violence reforms and the children's reforms are, in many ways, incompatible and inconsistent in their philosophy and objectives, creating fundamental tensions between them. Rather than focus on current practice, this paper will trace the campaign by women's legal groups to include explicit statutory recognition of violence in the Family Law Act. Contrasting the different expectations and assumptions underpinning the children's and violence provisions might contribute to understanding why the latter appear to be having little impact on children's contact decisions. The children's provisions were intended to change attitudes to parenting after separation by encouraging parents to share the care of their children and by promoting contact. They emphasised the needs of children by focussing on children's rights and parental responsibilities. The violence provisions require that 'family violence' is taken into account in making orders for children, and provide a regime to resolve inconsistencies between family violence orders made by State courts and Family Court violence orders. Women's legal groups encountered considerable resistance in their campaign as many of their claims conflicted with fundamental features of the children's reforms. The force of feminist claims for protective legislation often lies in establishing women's vulnerability and victim status, based on a right to personal inviolability. Focus on the rights and needs of women was inconsistent with the child-focus of the children's provisions and competed with the image of the child as victim of divorce. Claims for statutory recognition of violence presumed the need for legal intervention, and this was contrary to the broad educative purpose of the FLRA to discourage litigation and to appeal to 'to a wide audience of parents who may never become litigants.' These and other tensions permeated the campaign to include the violence provisions and it is likely they continue to influence the making of children's decisions where violence is a relevant factor.
     

    Session 4d (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Reg Graycar, NSW Law Reform Commission
    Reforming Relationships Law: rethinking law beyond the marriage paradigm

    Legal reforms that recognise forms of non-marital relationship have tended to model themselves on marriage (hence, eg, language such as 'marriage like relationships'). As family relationships become more diverse and disparate, the marriage analogy has become less appropriate. Relationships between people of the same sex, and other interdependent (not necessarily sexual) relationships have given rise to questions about the need to rethink the connections between various sorts of relationship and legal rights and responsibilities. This presentation will outline some of the reform options being considered as part of this review as well as some of those being considered or adopted in other jurisdictions.
     


    Session 4e: Carers

    Session 4e (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Mary Gays, Marymead Child & Family Centre
    Getting it right for young carers in the ACT

    A young carer is a young person under the age of 18 who looks after, or helps to look after a relative with an illness and/or disability. The difficulties in estimating the number of young carers are well documented. This is partly the result of methodologies and definitions used in studies, and partly due to the fact that young carers are hidden - service providers being unable to recognise young carers; young carers and their families being unwilling or unable to recognise a young person's caring role. Yet if we are to begin to support young carers and their families, we need to find ways to acknowledge the caring role of young people, and the part they play in looking after their relatives.

    Young carers are young people first, and many of their peers will be involved in similar household duties. The performance of household tasks is viewed as preparation for independence, and part of a 'normal' childhood experience, yet the responsibility of caring has accelerated the transition from childhood to adulthood for many young carers, making them 'wise beyond their years'. Caring may affect a young person's health, education and social development. In order to find out how many young people may have a caring role, a school-based survey is currently underway in high schools and colleges in the ACT.

    This survey asks young people themselves to self-define if they are looking after a relative with an illness and disability. Early results indicate that as many as 12% of young people may be looking after someone. This paper will explore who these young people are; who they are looking after; what they do; and what services they themselves would like to see developed.
     

    Session 4e (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Michael Bittman & Cathy Thomson, Social Policy Research Centre
    The Time Determinants of Caring

    In recent years there has been a significant shift in the provision of care for frail aged and disabled people from institutional care to care in private homes. Moreover, while there has been a substantial increase in the number of government-provided domiciliary services, this is far less significant than the volume of unpaid informal care. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, has calculated that the dollar value of unpaid caring labour is approximately double the total (monetary) welfare service expenditure in Australia. Most authorities predict that the need for informal care will grow. The major official source of information about carers, the Australian Bureau of Statistics' Disability, Ageing and Carers Survey contains little information about the time devoted to care. Consequently, there is hardly any systematic knowledge about what determines the quantity of labour required for informal care, its nature or its intensity and the demands it places on families. Therefore is it not possible to estimate the demands placed on carers, how they vary according to changes in circumstances and to make informed judgements about the supply of caring labour. The paper explores the time determinants of the nature and intensity of informal care by analysing data from the ABS Time Use Survey and a series of focus groups with carers. It will examine how the care recipientís level of dependency, use of support services and the carer's own characteristics affect time spent in caregiving. The implications of the preliminary findings for policy will also be discussed.
     

    Session 4e (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Jo Page, Department of Family and Community Services
    Who Cares? An update on a departmental study of diverse care arrangements in Australian families, the Diverse Care Project

    Arrangements for the care of children in Australian society today are far more diverse than when the Commonwealth first provided financial support for families with children in 1941. Family structures and patterns of care today reflect a diversity of changing lifestyles, interpersonal relationships and cultural differences.

    Children may be shared by former partners or in the care of non-parents for example foster carers. They may be in transitional care arrangements such as short-term respite care or in the care of institutions. Many are in non-nuclear family situations arising from the child raising practices of ethnic or Indigenous groups.

    The Diverse Care project has been looking at outcomes from family assistance for families with dependent children in a range of caring arrangements. The project has been looking at the interactions of payment arrangements for family assistance on those family types.

    Phase One of the project was completed in December 1999 after consultations, workshops and focus groups with indigenous families, newly arrived ethnic groups and families from 'atypical' family groups. The latter included those likely to have experience of children going into foster or respite care, to be foster carers themselves, sole parents sharing the care of children with separated or divorced partners and grandparents parenting their grandchildren.

    The paper will provide an analysis of the findings of those consultations, and will update on work previously foreshadowed in a paper 'Widening the Horizons: Indigenous Families and Social Security' presented to AIFS in November 1998. It will discuss a Statement of Care pilot currently trialing more flexible payment arrangements in four indigenous community locations. It will also discuss options emerging in Phase Two of the project for removing the administrative constraints affecting outcomes for some families in diverse caring situations.
     


    Session 4f: Making the transition from welfare to work

    Session 4f (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    John Landt & Joelyn Pech, Welfare Review Team, Department of Family and Community Services
    Work and Welfare in Australia: The changing Role of Income

    For many Australians of working age, life is complex, unpredictable and difficult. Family life is often unsettled. Patterns of employment are often intermittent and/or part-time, and increasingly demand higher levels of education than previously. Australia's welfare system faces challenges as it seeks to respond to the complex and overlapping pressures on many families and individuals.

    The number of working-age welfare recipients has quadrupled over the past few decades, and is often mentioned as a cause for concern. At the same time, in the overall population, more people are in employment and more people are studying than ever before (often both). Similarly, more welfare recipients are also working and/or studying (and often also caring for children and/or others) while receiving income support. This indicates the increasingly complex role of the Australian welfare system as it seeks to assist people and families adjust to the changing needs of employment and family life.

    The paper examines the influence of changing patterns of employment and joblessness on Australian families and individuals. It discusses the changing role of Australia's welfare system in the context of current debates about welfare reform.
     

    Session 4f (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)
    Vicki Pearse, Department of Family and Community Services
    Parents, Planning and Participation: The Parenting Payment Intervention Pilot

    This paper will discuss the findings of innovative pilot research undertaken by the Department of Family and Community Services. This pilot used an experimental design to assess the impact of an interview with specialist Centrelink staff on four distinct groups of Parenting Payment customers at risk of long-term dependency. Within these groups one sub component is invited to attend an interview while another is required to attend. At the interview customers are encouraged and assisted to plan for the future and take action to avoid long-term dependency.

    The paper will discuss the impact of voluntary versus compulsory intervention strategies, the impact of the timing of interventions, and will identify significant barriers to social and economic participation faced by Parenting Payment customers.

    The paper will also focus on customer's attitudes to intervention strategies for Parenting Payment customers. The outcomes for 1150 customers who participated in an interview with a Jobs, Education Training (JET) adviser, (705 on a compulsory basis and 405 on a voluntary basis) are compared to outcomes for 1500 customers who have not taken part in an interview. Half of these are a control category and the other half are customers who have declined to participate in an interview.

    The data for the comparison group was collected through a telephone survey. Data was collected on customers' plans, activities and attitudes, education and work force attachment. This analysis provides a unique opportunity to examine the behavioural response of Parenting Payment customers to certain intervention strategies. Pilot Customers will be tracked over the longer term through the Department's Longitudinal Data Set to monitor exits from payment and earnings for the different sub groups.



    Session 4g: Building on Strengths - Workshop (Tuesday 25th 1.30-3.00 pm)

    Facilitators: Josephine Glenday & Leah Armstrong, The Hills Family Centre

    The Hills Family Centre provides many services aimed at strengthening families in our local community.
    The key principles and characteristics of our centre are:
    • The family is the focus
    • Range of entry points that families can access the service
    • Flexible, non-judgemental and family friendly
    • Client-centred approach
    • Recognises and builds on the family's strengths and competencies
    • Preventative focus
    • Integrating counselling and practical assistance
    • Trained volunteers, 'Extra Hands', work with family workers providing personal and practical assistance.
    • Responsive to local community needs
    • Partnerships and interagency co-operation

    Target audience:     welfare workers from agencies with a focus on families, including family centres, community health, hospital services, counselling agencies, volunteer home visiting programs.

    Knowledge and experience requirements of participants:     open to all who are interested in working with families, rather than individual family members.

    Aim of workshop: To demonstrate the positive outcomes for communities and individuals when a competency based approach is utilised.

    Objectives:
    1. To present two case studies which demonstrate the effective use of a strengths based approach in working with families
    2. To hypothesize the possible outcomes of these two scenarios using a deficit based approach
    3. To highlight the role of volunteers working alongside professionals in building the social fabric in our communities Issues to be discussed in two case studies: domestic violence, child protection, sexual assault, mental health, disability, NESB, isolation, homelessness / housing.

    Method: Two families will be introduced using video re their stories. Workers will elaborate on interventions, including volunteer support. (handouts). Participants will be involved in hypothesising outcomes based on working with 'problems'(working in small groups).
    Limit to 25 participants.
     

    Tuesday, July 25th, 3.30-5.00pm

    Session 5a: Children in care - meeting their parenting needs - Workshop

    Facilitators: Sue Ash, Wanslea Family Services & Sue Diamond, Family and Children's Services, WA

    The context for this workshop is that Sue Ash is Executive Director of Wanlsea, a non-government agency providing family support and out of home care services; Susan Diamond is in the early stages of a PhD, exploring 'the State as parent'. Both are troubled about the capacity of 'the system' to respond to the need for optimal parenting experiences for children in care.

    The purpose of the workshop is threefold:
    • To place the experience of parenting, for children in care, within a context of constitutional and legislative obscurity about children's rights and the responsibilities of various parties to provide for their parenting
    • To highlight the implications of this for children in care, and
    • To identify child focussed issues which need to become more prominent in our thinking, at all stages of service development (from the framing of legislation through to case practice), if positive change is to be achieved for children in care.

    The workshop will be in four parts:
    1. A concise analysis of the constitutional and legislative support for children's rights and the adequate parenting of children, in Australia
    2. An illustrative case study
    3. An interactive problem solving exercise in small groups, encouraging participants to consider a child's needs holistically, and to identify both legislative and programmatic, impediments and supports to meeting these.
    4. Finally participants will be given an opportunity to identify some possible strategies for both overcoming the impediments and profitting from the opportunities.
    Target audience: politicians, funders, contractors, programme and policy development personnel, programme negotiators, evaluators and case practitioners who wish to explore their comfort envelope in delivering child-relevant services. It is expected that participants will find challenged, their existing benchmarks for acceptable programme quality.

    Limit to 25 participants.
     

    Session 5b: Parenting programs

    Session 5b (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Anne Honey, David McConnell & Gwynnyth Llewellyn, University of Sydney
    Keeping children safe and well

    The NSW Parent-Child Health and Wellbeing Project is a randomised, controlled trial designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an innovative educational program for parents with special learning needs. The Home Learning Program (HLP) was developed by Professor Tymchuk at UCLA and modified for the Australian context by our research team. The HLP aims to equip parents of young children with the knowledge and skills necessary to manage home dangers, accidents, and child illnesses. 45 parents with special learning needs were randomly allocated to 3 groups, each of which received the program in sequential phases. Parents were assessed on standardised and criterion-referenced measures prior to and after each phase. The results of the HLP were compared to three conditions - non-program home visits, provision of learning materials only, and no intervention. This paper will present the parental skill acquisition and maintenance results of this trial and discuss implications for future program development.
     

    Session 5b (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Jennifer Bowes, Macquarie University
    Response of parents to parent education and support programs: A review of evaluation research on some key USA programs

    The paper reports on the findings of a recent investigation in the USA of parent support programs and the evaluation research associated with those programs. The primary question guiding the investigation was: What has been measured or recorded about parents' preferences for particular styles of program delivery or types of information about child development and parenting? The question was pursued in the USA rather than in Australia becausea wide range of family support and parent education programs have been operating in the USA since the 1970's, and many have been the subject of evaluative research.

    The paper will focus on programs that target families with children aged 0-5 years and present information about four key programs: Parents as teachers, the Even Start Literacy program, the Home Instruction for Preschoolers (HIPPY) program and the Hawaii Healthy Start program. The findings of evaluations of the programs in terms of consequences for children and parents will be presented in the context of the original question about parental response and changed parenting beliefs, attitudes and behaviour. In general, limited research information has been collected about parental response during and following participation in these programs.

    The paper will argue that we need to know more about the mediating effects of parental response to programs to help explain benefits that flow to children. We also need to know more about the community links of families and how these are affected, positively or negatively, by participation in such programs.

    An argument will also be made for parental involvement in and input from the beginning of programs so that they are matched more closely to needs. A successful example will be presented of designing information for parents about parenting and child development, the Wellness Guide, developed by the University of California, Berkeley.
     

    Session 5b (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Frank Monagle, The PARED Foundation (Parents for Education)
    Parenting the very young - key to the future

    It is vital to the Australian family that parents fulfill their role as educators. The Parents for Education (Pared) Foundation presented a paper to the 1998 AIFS Conference in which it proposed certain principles of effective education based on the recognition that parents are the primary educators of children. In particular, we focussed on twenty years' experience in establishing schools based on parent/ teacher teamwork in developing character in children.

    In 1998, we referred to a pilot course in family education which we had recently launched, specifically aimed at parents of 0 to 5 year olds. Since 1998, over 100 couples in Sydney have undertaken the 'First Steps' Course and it was run recently for 17 couples in Perth.

    First Steps recognizes not only the vital importance for the child of the education he or she receives in the infant and preschool years but also the importance for parents of infants and pre-schoolers of professional input that provides practical advice for their task as educators. The Course involves participants in lectures, case studies and group discussions that explore such topics as establishing sound early habits, the home environment, emerging sensitivities, the role of play, and parental communication.

    Experience has shown that the most important aspect of the First Steps Course, apart from the knowledge and skills it provides, may well be the encouragement it gives younger parents in their long term task as educators.
    Young parents may be ill equipped for the task for a variety of reasons yet their commitment to becoming parents requires moral support as well as practical input.

    The First Steps Course has been highly effective in addressing a need that is ever more urgent - namely, capitalizing on the good will and hope motivating young parents to bring new life into the world. Pared would welcome the opportunity to share its experiences with young parents.
     

    Session 5c: Family and children's well being

    Session 5c (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Judith Lazarus & Anne Rosewood, Victorian Association for the Care and Resettlement of Offenders
    The impact of imprisonment on families and children of prisoners in Victoria

    VACRO (The Victorian Association for the Care and Resettlement of Offenders) is a community-based organisation, established in 1872 to address the needs of prisoners. Today the focus has shifted to include the families and significant others of prisoners, especially those providing care for prisoners' children.

    The paper will present the findings of groundbreaking research recently undertaken across the Victorian prison system, which sought to document the needs of the families of incarcerated parents, with special focus on the needs of their children. This research is the first of its scope in this state and only the fourth inquiry undertaken in Australia.

    The paper will examine the findings of the research within the broader context of the organisation's experience derived from service delivery to prisoners and their families, over the past decade.

    This research was commissioned in order to identify specific needs of children of prisoners and to investigate the most appropriate ways in which VACRO can respond. It derived from long-standing anecdotal evidence which suggests that the parenting-skills levels of prisoners reflects the general paucity of resources available to this extremely marginalised group, within the wider community.

    As the culture of the criminal justice system is quite 'values- specific', it has been our observation, as welfare practitioners within the prisons, that this values incongruence paves the way for the children of prisoners to engage in anti-social behaviours which are often not tolerated by the community. It also sought to ascertain to what degree the 'criminal culture' surrounding the lifestyle and incarceration of prisoner parents impacts upon their children and more specifically, whether exposure to this culture can be proven as a predictor of the children's future enmeshing within the criminal justice system.

    The paper will speak to the research report recently undertaken by VACRO that investigated the impact of imprisonment on families, especially children with a view to informing future strategies for government and community response to this issue. Only three significant studies have been undertaken in Australia, two in NSW and one in Queensland. The only previous Victorian study on the needs of prisoners' families was undertaken in Pentridge prison in 1964, therefore this is the first state wide Victorian study of its kind.
     

    Session 5c (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Marilyn Barnes, University of Newcastle & Gus Eddy
    Home-Start (Newcastle/Eastlake Macquarie) Research Project

    Home-Start is a voluntary home-visiting program for families with at least one child under five who are experiencing stress or difficulties. fhe first Home-Start in Australia was established by the Family Action Centre at the University of Newcastle in 1989. The program has developed over the eleven years into a strong ervice that is embedded in the community of Newcastle/Eastlake Macquarie and offers friendship and practical support to parents with young children.

    This research proposal funded by the Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services is a six week project that will be completed at the end of June 2000. The findings will demonstrate trends analysis of the statistical information collected over the eleven years of operation and will include, : -
    • Main Reasons for Referrals to Home-Start
    • Action of Referrals
    • Reasons Why Families Ceased Home-Start
    • Profile of Home-Start Families
    • Duration of Family Contact
    • Length of Involvement of Home-Start Visitors
    • Reasons for Withdrawal of Visitors
    • Profile of Home-Start Visitors
    • Number of Home Visits
    • Record of Co-ordinator's Contact with Families and Visitors
    • Why Visitors join Home-Start.

    Given the current interest in volunteer home-visiting it is imperative that the rich data collected over this period is reported on to enhance voluntary home visiting in Australia and to recognise the valuable role volunteers play in developing social capital and creating a civil society.

    Marilyn Barnes and Gus Eddy will present this information with an enormous amount of experience and knowledge in working with Home-Start over the eleven years. Gus Eddy was the first Home-Start co-ordinator and was responsible for ,implementing the program for the first two years. Marilyn Barnes was Home-Start co-ordinator for four years and has been National Co-ordinator for Home-Start Australia for six years supporting new and existing Home-Start schemes throughout Australia.
     
    Session 5c (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Lyn Littlefield, Victorian Parenting Centre; K. Story, & C. Woolcock, Austin & Repatriation Medical Centre; M. Trinder, The Victorian Parenting Centre; S. Burke, The Victorian Parenting Centre; K. Reid, La Trobe University
    The Exploring Together Program
     
    The Exploring Together Program for primary school aged children has been successfully running for the past 12 years in clinics, schools and community centres. The Program is a short-term, multi-faceted, group treatment program for children with emotional and behavioural problems, including aggression, impulsivity, anxiety, depression, social withdrawal, problematic peer, parent-adolescent and family relationships.

    The program consists of a children's group, a parents' group and an interactive group for children and parents, as well as meetings for partners and teachers. It has proven success in decreasing the children's anxiety/depression, aggression, delinquent behaviour, social problems, withdrawn behaviour and somatic problems, and in improving parental depression, parenting skills and parent-child interactions. In 1996 the program was modified for use with adolescents. Changes were made to the content and structure of the program to take into account adolescents' issues and the difference in parent-adolescent relationships.

    The Exploring Together Program has recently been significantly modified for use with pre-school aged children and is currently being evaluated. It is anticipated that the Exploring Together model will be potentially even more effective when treating younger children and their families before the children's behaviour problems, maladaptive parenting practices and dysfunctional parent-child relationships become too entrenched.

    The theoretical rationale and common framework for these three distinct programs will be discussed, and the differences in structure and content of the programs will be outlined and described. The Exploring Together Program is now able to be offered to children and youths between 3 and 18 years of age making one of the most comprehensive and far-reaching treatment programs for 'at risk' families.


    Session 5d: Child Support

    Session 5d (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Tammy Wolffs, Child Support Agency
    Introduction of a minimum child support liability - presentation of evaluation findings

    In 1994, the Joint Select Committee recommended that a minimum child support payment of $260 per annum be introduced. The introduction of this minimum payment was considered to be consistent with the principles of the scheme, namely that parents share in the cost of supporting their children and that parents have a primary duty to maintain their children.

    The Committee considered that there may be special circumstances where it would be inequitable to apply the minimum payment, but suggested these instances would be rare and should be dealt with by the Child Support Registrar. The Government responded by introducing a minimum payment of $260 per annum to take effect from 1 July 1999. However, there are no exemptions, except where a parent has no income at all.

    This national project comprised a number of research components, undertaken eight to ten months after the inception of the initiative. These included telephone interviews with approximately 1,250 payers and 750 payees, focus groups with CSA staff, and semi-structured interviews with representatives from the community sector.

    The project (due for completion by the end of June 2000) and has sought to:
    • identify specific payer groups (eg by source of income, ethnicity, current family composition, nature of employment, payment arrangement, geographical location, contact with children);
    • identify specific payee groups (eg by source of income, ethnicity, current family composition, payment arrangement etc);
    • assess its positive or negative impacts on different client groups;
    • investigate the impact on CSA staff (eg workload, morale, support of the scheme);
    • investigate its impact on the general community and community sector (eg demand for resources and emergency assistance, attitudes and support for the scheme);
    • determine whether it has had any effect on care arrangements of children, proportion of private collect cases, non-agency payments, or employment seeking activities of clients;
    • identify where it is working and where it is not; and
    • identify any problems in collection.



    Session 5d (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Jerry Silvey, Child Support Agency
    Child Supporting Parents: Self Administration

    Many separated parents not obligated to use the Child Support Agency do so until their last entitled child turns 18. This is administratively costly and may not be in the parents' best interests in terms of independence/self reliance.

    Separated parents not required to register are those who receive no Family Payment or no more than its minimum rate.

    Experimental work - focus group and pilot survey - indicates that payee parents for whom the Agency does not collect child support use the Agency for an annual assessment of child support, as backup should private payment arrangements falter and admit ignorance of the right to end their cases. 90% of these parents described their relationships with ex-partners as neutral or very friendly.

    The group of payee parents who rely on the Agency to collect child support for them hold tightly to their registration because of persisting conflict with the payer and anxiety about not being paid maintenance as well as wanting an annual assessment of child support. 94% of these parents described relations with their ex-partners as neutral at best but mostly unfriendly or non-existent.

    Nearly 40% of parents for whom the Agency does not collect expressed an intention to end their registration should written instructions or information sessions on how to arrange child support or access to formula calculation of child support be provided. The results suggest that the pointed provision and delivery of services wanted by parents would save several million dollars annually in administrative expenses while fostering self reliance.

    The validity of these indicative results could be tested in a national survey in the context of a behavioural model which accounts for parental characteristics, but especially attitudes and norms underlying any intention to leave or not leave the CSA, and the strength of parents to act on any intention to end their registration.


    Session 5d (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Bruce Smyth, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Young adult children of separated parents: The meat in the income support sandwich?

    Scant information is available on the extent to which separated parents continue to support their children financially once children turn 18 years. Little is also known about separated parents' awareness of their legal obligations to support their young adult children, or their attitudes towards such obligations. This paper draws on data from two Institute studies (a) to estimate the frequency with which 'eligible' young adult children receive financial support, and (b) to explore the attitudes of parents and children to such support. The implications of these data for current income support policy and practice for young people are examined — particularly the interaction between child support and Youth Allowance.



    Session 5e: Schools as Community Centres: Making Connections - Workshop     (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)

    Facilitators: Jo Fletcher, Redfern Public School, & Dr Garth Alperstein, Central Sydney Community Health

    The NSW Departments of Education and Training, Community Services, Health and Housing have collaborated to fund six inter-agency school community centres. The Schools as Community Centres Program is designed to support families with children five years of age and under with a view to ensuring that all children have a positive start to school. The program is aimed at integrating service delivery to better meet the needs of families and to promote service accessibility, particularly for those families who do not traditionally access mainstream services. The program represents a collaborative approach to the range of problems that parents face in the early years of their childrenís lives, particularly when they are isolated from their extended family and the community in which they live, and are unaware of the services available to support them.

    There is a great deal of research evidence which confirms the value of prevention, early intervention and a coordinated approach to responding to the needs of ëat riskí multi-problem families in disadvantaged communities.

    The Schools as Community Centres Program involves locating a full-time facilitator in a community centre at the local public school to address these concerns. The task of the facilitator is to consult with communities and to identify and respond to local service needs and issues for families with children from birth to five years. This means improving access to existing programs and services as well as addressing service gaps for young families. For example, at one site the Departments of Community Services and Health jointly fund a preschool teacher to teach three and four year olds at the school community centre one day per week. These children would be unlikely to experience preschool without this service. Research suggests that without a constructive preschool-type experience children are potentially disadvantaged when they enter school.

    This workshop will focus on:
    • background to the program
    • program aims and objectives
    • program features
    • project initiatives

    The Premier awarded the program the Premierís Inaugural Public Sector Award for 1997, for, making a significant improvement to service delivery outcomes in New South Wales.
     

    Session 5f: Mutual obligation and the welfare state

    Session 5f (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Julie Finlayson, Australian National University
    What future for indigenous families? Methodological considerations for policy research

    Researchers from the Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR) at the Australian National University are engaged in longitudinal research with welfare-dependent Aboriginal families commissioned by the Indigenous Policy Unit of the Department of Family and Community Services. The project explores the relationship between payments to indigenous supporting parents and the well being of children.

    Field investigations in the first of a projected five year longitudinal study were carried out in 1999 with the expectation of a minimum sample of fifteen families in each of the two field locations [one rural, the other remote]. Happily, the sample numbers was exceeded in both field sites. A pilot study was run to trail project methodology and questionnaire. Importantly, the results indicated that in short-term field research, primary data collection needed a combination of techniques. Further, results from the pilot suggested that cross-cultural research necessitate critical examination of research assumptions and parameters, including ultimately, the question of how service delivery accommodates policy acknowledgement of cultural diversity among client families.

    Ethnographic research confirms that welfare-dependent indigenous households are characterized by inter-generational poverty, women parenting children throughout their life cycle, heavy reliance on support from the extended family and kin network, and high levels of residential mobility, especially amongst children. Locational disadvantages in rural and remote areas are compounded by intergenerational poverty and welfare dependency.

    The paper reviews critical methodological points at the end of the first year of the study followed by exploration of the implications for indigenous families of current Federal Government commitment to reducing welfare dependency through the 'stronger families and communities' strategy.
     

    Session 5f (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Malcolm Voyce, Macquarie University
    The Changing Nature of Social Welfare in Australia: From Social Entitlement to the 'Personal Supervisory State'

    This paper places current social welfare reform within the history of liberalism. I argue that while liberalism professes a commitment to equality of citizens, its practices have been inconsistent with its core beliefs. I argue there is a strong element within liberalism where the habits of subjects are perceived as requiring a combination of liberal-therapeutic, disciplinary and morally coercive techniques in order to bring them up to the level of liberal subjects. My thesis is that the present campaign against 'welfare dependency' represents a reformulation within liberalism of desirable family conduct and ideas of work.

    In this setting I argue social welfare entitlements have ceased to be regarded as rights, such as one might obtain through notions of citizenship, but are now seen as entitlements. Secondly, as writers on neoliberalism have shown, there is a 'new specification of the subject of government, where individuals are constructed as agents of choice'. Thirdly, I examine new approaches to social welfare in the light of the notion of 'new paternalism'.
     

    Session 5f (Tuesday 25th 3.30-5.00pm)
    Julia Perry, Social Policy Research Centre
    One Language, Three Accents: Welfare Reform in the US, UK and Australia

    While Australia, the US and the UK are currently using similar terms in the debates over the direction of welfare reform and Mutual Obligations, the implicit contracts underlying the welfare systems may differ between these countries. This paper explores some of these differences in order to clarify the language of the debate. The paper will include discussion of Participation Income, Conditional Minimum Income, Mutual Obligations, the New Paternalism, UK New Welfare etc to draw out similarities and differences in the way these terms are being used in the three countries' welfare contexts.

    We have moved from a system where assistance was provided as a right to those in poverty for various reasons, to a system that provides more complex forms of public support for workforce participation. In Australia, the current debate on Mutual Obligations is a further evolution and formalisation of developments that have been occurring. The debate concerns re-thinking the categories of those currently not subject to mutual obligations and the degree to which they should be required to enter some form of contract. Finally it concerns the forms of social participation, such as caring, looking after children or voluntary work that for some people would be an acceptable alternative to financial independence.


    Wednesday, July 26th, 9.00-10.30am


    Session 6a: Permanent family placement for children unable to live within their birth families: Challenges and controversies - Symposium

    Discussant: Sarah Wise, Australian Institute of Family Studies

    Over the past decade in Australia, there has been a comprehensive revision of the out-of-home service system as a result of an increase in the attention given to children's developmental needs. New legislation in most states and territories now gives greater support to the principles of permanency planning with the goal of avoiding indefinite welfare drift for children.

    The mandated first priority for achieving family stability is the avoidance of unnecessary disruption to the child's familiar environment. For a core group of children who do come into care, the preferred option is for reunification, and if this is not feasible an appropriate permanent alternative such as a family with legal guardianship should be sought. However, despite welfare rhetoric, some children are still experiencing long waits in the child welfare system, and attempts to implement a system of permanency planning have not been fully realised.

    A major reason for the gap between legislative principles about the aims of social work intervention and the actual experience is the clear absence of any established strategy within any state or territory to define the steps that need to be undertaken to reach these outcomes.

    The symposium discusses the dilemmas involved in achieving the goal of long-term case planning in respect of children's future, and the foundation on which a permanent case-plan should be based.

    In particular, the symposium will explore answers to questions such as: How much work should be undertaken to facilitate change within the birth family? At what point do you decide family support is unrealistic? How do you determine the likelihood of reunification? What are the crucial time limits for implementing case plans? What permanent placement arrangements, including adoption and the termination of parental rights benefit children, birth parents and substitute parents? What are the disruption rates for permanent placements and how can stability be guaranteed?


    Session 6a (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Howard Bath, Thomas Wright Institute
    Rights and realities in the permanency debate

    There is very little argument against the principle of seeking permanence for children in out-of-home care and universal recognition that harm result from multiple placements and foster care drift. However, the right of children to permanency faces challenges from legal, social, 'market' and developmental realities that affect practice.

    This paper will initially review some of the legal and ethical impediments to promoting permanence. Using data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare and elsewhere, it will then focus on some social and 'market' realities influencing out-of-home care practice. These include changes to the participation rates of women in the workforces, the trend toward delayed parenthood, the gap between demand and supply of foster carer, increased demands on carers, adoption breakdown rates and carer access to specialist counselling and support. Given the significant over-representation of indigenous children in out-of-home care it will also review some of the relevant data and the implications of policy shift for this population.

    Developmental realities include the role of identity issues in placement breakdown and the practice complications introduced by the arbitrary termination of parental rights where best practice suggests 'open adoption' and inclusive foster parenting. Ultimately, the right to permanence needs to be balanced against competing rights to a secure identity and open access.



    Session 6a (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Cas O'Neill, University of Melbourne
    Support, Timelines and Hard Decisions

    Termination of parental rights is a harsh term which describes a harsh concept. Generations of adopted people and their birth families have suffered through losing contact with each other by means of legally enforced separation.

    On the other hand, children need consistency, safety and loving care and, if birth parents and their extended families are unable or unwilling to nurture them in all these ways, then hard decisions, with clear time guidelines, need to be made on behalf of the children.

    However, making a decision to remove a child from his or her birth parents should never involve terminating the right of child and extended birth family to maintain a continuing relationship.

    This presentation will explore:- whether birth parents are supported sufficiently to keep their children; how and when decisions should be made to remove children from their birth families; relationships between birth and permanent families; and whether permanent parents are supported sufficiently.


    Session 6a (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Judy Cashmore, Social Policy Research Centre
    What can we learn from the research on adoption and foster care?

    One aim of new legislation in most states in Australia and of older legislation and policies in the US and the UK and territories is to provide for greater permanency of care for those children who enter out-of-home care because of the incapacity or unwillingness of their parents to provide appropriate care. This is in response to the clear evidence of damage to children as a result of multiple moves from one foster home or other placement to another, and the resulting changes of school, peer groups and community.
    Policy and practice both in Australia and internationally has seen a changing emphasis over the last decade or so on family preservation, kinship care, and open adoption in an attempt to find different ways to find stable and secure care for children. English and US research provides some indicators of what factors predict successful outcomes and which do not, and this paper will focus on what we can learn from the research on adoption and foster care in terms of the outcomes for children as a result of the various forms of interventions and services for children.
     
     
    Session 6b: Cultural diversity, parenting and children's wellbeing

    Session 6b (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Margaret Sims & Moira O'Connor, Edith Cowan University
    Parenting at the interface between two cultures

    Aboriginal parents rear their children in an environment where hegemonic culture impinges on Aboriginal cultural beliefs and practices. Many Aboriginal parents want their children to become successful in both the Aboriginal and the hegemonic culture. In order to achieve this, they need to make adaptations to their parenting based on the context in which they are parenting. In this research, Aboriginal parents talk about parenting when surrounded by the hegemonic culture, and parenting in contexts where the hegemonic culture has less impact. They discuss the strategies they use and the processes they undergo to make the necessary adaptations in their parenting behaviour. They talk about what parenting means to them and what they are trying to achieve in parenting their children.
     

    Session 6b (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Parminder Parmar, Sara Harkness & Charles M. Super, University of Connecticut
    Euro-American and Asian Parents Ethnotheories About Play and Learning During Preschool Years
     
    The present research study explored cultural variations in beliefs and practices related to young children's play between Euro-American and Asian families in U.S. While play is considered central to children's development in American middle class society, there is wide variation in beliefs and practices related to young children's play in other cultures. Furthermore, although play is central component of pre-school and day care curriculum in America and elsewhere, children from different cultural backgrounds may arrive in these settings with very different experiences of play at home. Adaptation to pre-school or day care may be made more difficult for children whose play experience is widely divergent; at the same time, families' contact with pre-school or day care settings may influence them to adopt new approaches at home. Given that pre-school (or center based day care) is becoming the point of entry into the educational system for many young children, it is important to understand how parents' concepts of play and learning experience interact with early childhood education environments.

    The sample included parents of 48 preschool children from two cultural backgrounds and their teachers. The sample consisted of Euro-Americans (n=24) and Asians (n=24). Families with at least one child between the ages 2-6 were included, and they were matched for age, sex, and cultural backgrounds. All children were attending preschool. Both parents of the target child were from the same cultural background. All Asian parents were in the US for less than 10 years. The locale of the study was northeastern Connecticut. The data were collected at two settings, at home and at school.

    The results show two major themes emerging 1) American parents consider play as an important vehicle for the early development and growth of the preschool children. They consider play helpful in enhancing physical, social, emotional and cognitive development. On the other hand, the Asian parents do not value play in the development of preschool children. They believe play does not help children get ready for school or be more prepared in academics. Asian parents not only believed that early academics are important for the development of preschool children but they also believed that effort is important and therefore Asian parents teach their children at home almost every day.

    Second, academics were important to American and Asian parents alike, but the beliefs about how to achieve this goal in preschool years were very different. Euro-American and Asian parents attach different cultural meaning to play and learning activities. The Euro-American parents believe that play is very important for academic achievement whereas, the Asian parents stress that getting a head start in early academics, is important for the cognitive development of children in preschool years. Asian parents do not use play as an intermediary tool, but teach academics at home directly beginning in preschool years.


    Session 6b (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Violet Kolar & Grace Soriano, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Parental disciplinary practices: findings from Parenting-21

    Disciplinary practices, particularly attitudes towards the use of physical punishment, say a lot about the status and image of children in society. While much of the parenting literature available to parents advocates an authoritative style of parenting, there is relatively little known about how contemporary parents are disciplining their children.

    Disciplinary beliefs and practices were one of the main themes explored in the Australian Institute of Family Studies' Parenting-21 project. In general, Parenting-21 aimed to provide a detailed picture of how contemporary Australian parents are raising their children, and to asses the influence of various cultural backgrounds in childrearing practices.

    The paper summarises findings from interviews with Australian parents from various cultural communities with at least one child aged between 6 months and 8 years. Using a comparative approach, analysis is focused on how parents perceived their children's 'misbehaviour'; the type of discipline parents used to respond to it; and their attitudes towards, as well as their use of, physical punishment. The results will be discussed in terms of general and specific policy implications.

    Parenting-21 was conducted in collaboration with the International Study of Parents, Children and Schools and involves researchers from Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the United States.
     

    Session 6b (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Grace Soriano & Violet Kolar, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Meeting the challenges of parenting; factors that enhance and hinder the role of parents

    Parenting is a complex and demanding process that commits parents to the daily care and nurture of children, as well as socialising them to become participating and contributing members of their societies. While the majority of parents successfully fulfil these responsibilities, there generally tends to be little recognition when parenting is done well. In contrast, parents become the primary focus of attention when things go wrong, like child maltreatment, youth homelessness and suicide. However, not only is children's outcome determined by more than the parenting they receive, but that parenting itself is affected by a host of complex variables that include individual parent and child characteristics, as well as contextual factors such as access to support networks and the nature of the marital relationship, all of which interact to affect parenting practices, and subsequently, outcomes for children.

    The way parents meet the challenges of parenting was explored as part of Parenting-21, a project by the Australian Institute of Family Studies that aimed to provide a detailed picture of how contemporary Australian parents are raising their children, and to assess the variations in child rearing among parents from different cultural backgrounds. The findings presented in this paper are mainly informed by the qualitative analysis of two specific questions directed at parents: what are the things that make life more satisfying/easier for you as a parent; and what are the things that make life more difficult? The responses of Australian parents from different cultural backgrounds are further examined to determine the similarities and differences in their parenting experiences.

    Parenting-21 was conducted in collaboration with the International Study of Parents, Children and Schools and involves researchers from Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the United States.


    Session 6c: Marriage, health and well-being

    Session 6c (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Susie Sweeper & Kim Halford, Griffith University
    Adjustment to relationship breakdown in recently separated adults: Longitudinal assessment of a new measure and testing a predictive model

    Adjustment to relationship breakdown in recently separated adults: Longitudinal assessment of a new measure and testing a predictive model
    It is widely accepted that the time immediately following a relationship breakdown is the most difficult and the time when people most likely develop adjustment problems. Unfortunately there is no accepted, valid or reliable assessment tool used to assess adjustment after a relationship breakdown in order to predict who will continue to have long term adjustment problems.

    The 3 aims of the current study were to:
    1. develop a measure of adjustment to relationship breakdown in recently separated people and provide initial psychometric data
    2. Test a predictive model of adjustment that includes stressor variables (e.g., legal proceedings, finances, time with children) and mediating (social support) and moderating (e.g., attachment style, sex, personality factors, time since separation) variables.
    3. Obtain 6 and 12-month longitudinal data.
    Self-report measures (e.g., Quality of Social Support Scale, Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS), Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale, questions related to relationship breakdown including time since separation, nature of contact with children, amount of litigation, who initiated separation), and the newly developed 40-item outcome measure, Separation Adjustment Measure (SAM) was given to 220 recently separated (marital or de facto) men and women.

    The SAM is divided into child-related and non-child related adjustment items. For the non-child related adjustment items a factor analysis revealed 3 factors (level of attachment / connection to former partner, loneliness and emotional liability) that accounted for 55% of the variance. For the child-related items, two factors (relationship with child and negotiation with former partner over child responsibilities) accounted for 46% of the
    variance.

    Hierarchical regressions were conducted to test the predictive model.Of interest, for participants with children, stressors significantly predicted adjustment while moderators assumed an insignificant predictive role. For participants without children, moderators played more of a predictive role while stressors were statistically
    insignificant.

    Six-month and 12 month longitudinal data on the outcome measures (SAM and DASS) will also be presented.


    Session 6c (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Penny Warner-Smith & Gita Mishra, University of Newcastle & Annette Dobson, University of Queensland
    Marriage, income and women's health

    The conventional model for measuring a woman's socioeconomic status (SES) ascribes her social location to the occupation of her husband. The individualistic model locates her according to her own occupational status. Given the well-documented links between SES and health, an analysis using the first model would suggest that the health of a professional woman who is married to a skilled manual worker would more closely resemble that of the working class than the middle class. However, using the second model, the health of the woman professional would be more characteristic of the middle class.

    In this paper we investigate the proposition that the self-reported health status of married women is associated both with their own SES, as indicated by occupation and income, and that of their partner. Data from the mid aged cohort of the 1998 follow-up survey of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health are drawn on to show that the self reported health, both physical and mental, of partnered women in lower income groups improves with increases in their own income as well as that of their partner, but that the effect disappears at higher levels of income. Associations between low income and poor physical health have been generally well documented, but less research has focused on associations between women's SES and mental health.

    It is suggested here that mechanisms of control related to autonomy in paid work as well as perceived relative deprivation associated with the distribution of household labour, may be implicated in these findings in regard to mental health.
     

    Session 6c (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    D. Russell Crane, Brigham Young University, USA
    Decreasing Health Care Use with Marriage and Family Therapy: The Case for Involving Family Members in Mental Health Care

    This paper will present the results of a study examining the 'offset effect' of various types of mental health counselling/therapy. The offset effect refers to a decrease in the use of medical services after counselling. The idea is that the costs of providing a mental health service can be offset by a decrease in the costs of other medical care. Once a person is able to resolve their emotional problems, the tendency for some people to become ill because of their emotional problems would decease. Previous research has shown an offset effect for individual therapy, but studies that examine the importance of involving other family members have been lacking. The present study helps to correct this deficiency by specifically addressing the effect of involving family members in counselling. If counselling included family members produces an offset, the opportunity to decrease health care costs for individuals and families with emotional problems could be studied.

    This study was housed at a large Health Maintenance Organizations. All subjects had been referred for counselling. The dependent variable was ' all health care use' by the subject before, during and after therapy.

    Subjects received either:
    1. individual therapy;
    2. marital therapy;
    3. family therapy in which they were the person with the problem; or
    4. family therapy in which they attended with a person identified as having the problem.
    Questions to be addressed:
    1. Do people reduce their use of medical services after counselling?
    2. Does involving family members in counselling influence the use of medical services after counselling?

    Session 6d: Family violence

    Session 6d (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Sotirios Sarantakos, Charles Sturt University
    Victims and perpetrators: Why did DV policies fail?

    The paper uses data from an in depth study of 68 violent families, to construct an image of domestic violence, based on accounts contributed by the wife, the husband, one of their children and the mother of the wife. All family members were interviewed in the context of each violent case over a period of more than ten years. The paper addresses critically issues of substance (eg extent, nature, and structure of violence; fear, intimidation, control, provocation, and self-defence; and the nature of victims and perpetrators of domestic violence), as well as relevant DV policies and practices. It also examines the validity of common beliefs and practices in this area, and sheds new light on the status of domestic violence, and more so on the role and significance of victims and perpetrators of domestic violence. The findings of this study, which ultimately included 272 respondents, challenge current domestic violence policies, and offer alternative explanations for the failure of these policies to significantly reduce or control the extent of DV in this country - despite the strong commitment of the community and the state, and the introduction of relevant law reforms, programs and practices, and despite the strong support and commitment of many local and national organisations, and the active involvement of many new experts in this area. Finally, the paper makes recommendations about how to address domestic violence in Australia, if this problem were to be controlled or reduced.


    Session 6d (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Terry Bartholomew, Deakin University
    Family violence interventions and mandatory behaviour change programs: Some obstacles to integration

    The author of this paper co-ordinates behavioural change/ anger management programs for violent male offenders in Victoria, Australia. A parallel of the well documented penological initiative to manage the majority of offenders in the community is that, in Australian jurisdictions, an increasing proportion of male offenders are receiving community correctional orders that include anger management program conditions.

    This paper explicates some of the many ethical and psycho-legal issues that arise when conducting such programs. In doing so, a focus is placed on existent tensions between dedicated family violence interventions and more generic anger management programs conducted through the criminal justice system.

    Generalist programs for men and dedicated family violence interventions have been increasingly construed as operating from different ends of political and philosophical spectrums in recent years, and this paper questions this simple dichotomisation. In exploring this idea, topics such as: requiring insight and 'preparedness to change' from family violence perpetrators before admission to an intervention program, the ongoing collusion struggle, confidentiality, measuring 'success', and organisational obstacles to integrating best practice guidelines across program types are all discussed.

    This analysis utilises issues from these sites to interrogate philosophical, theoretical, ethical, and practical obstacles to a meaningful dialogue between dedicated family violence interventions and generalist offender programs. It is argued that only a portion of these obstacles are insurmountable, and that the remainder have not been suitably explored by administrations from either orientation.
     

    Session 6d (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Elizabeth Seddon & Kerry James, Relationships Australia
    Men's Understanding of their Violence; Implications for Policy and Practice

    In this paper, we present the findings of a qualitative study into men's violence. The study involved interviews with thirty men who were participating in a men's violence program.

    The focus of the study was on the men's construction of their violence and their narratives of their relationships with partners and families of origin. Interviews elicited the man's experience of a Domestic Violence restraining order; his view of the problems in his relationship; his construction of his own violence; his beliefs about his partner; his relationship with his father and with his mother, and his engagement with traditional masculinity.

    The perspectives of attachment theory, psychodynamics, systemic, and feminist theory are used to enrich our understanding of the data. Findings include: connections between a man's attachment style and his behaviour in his relationship; his construction of his violence as an outcome of his feelings of being unjustly treated by his partner; and 'seeing' himself as a 'rescuer' of distressed women who are already victims of violence and abuse. A woman's history of physical and sexual abuse in her family of origin seems to be used by some partners as permission to continue the abuse. This was so especially if his partner no longer needed him to rescue her. Men who experienced abuse at the hands of their fathers, were more likely to exonerate their fathers and blame themselves.

    This presentation will address both the implications for therapy with men and boys and the policy implications of the research findings. Where appropriate the research will also refer to the empirical aspects of the project which involves over 120 men.
     

    Session 6e: Young people - attitudes, beliefs and behaviour

    Session 6e (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Robyn Freestone, John Toumbourou, Centre for Adolescent Health, University of Melbourne
    From the Horses' Mouth - An Ivestigation of Young People from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds and their Views Regarding Drug Education

    Youth problems associated with licit and illicit drug use have emerged as priority concerns in Victoria and other parts of Australia. School-based drug education is a practical and effective means of educating young people about drugs and their use. The student population is diverse and therefore, there is a necessity to carefully investigate and address the range of needs associated with this diversity. The Backgrounds Project, an initiative of the Victorian governmentís Turning the Tide program, explored the relevance of drug education for secondary school students from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds. Three hundred students participated in this research from various cultural communities: Bosnian, Cambodian, Italian, Lebanese, Turkish, Timorese, Vietnamese and the Horn of Africa. The major methodology used to consult students was sequenced focus groups. Students met within groups of eight to twelve and discussed a range of issues relevant to drugs, drug use and education over a series of five weekly meetings. This report focuses in particular on the views of students interviewed in schools around Flemington, North Melbourne and Kensington (the Intersect cluster). In defiance of widespread stereotypes, a major finding emerging from the project was that levels of drug use within the CLD samples selected as ìhigh riskî were lower than comparable data collected through the Victorian school survey. Victorian data were reviewed suggesting further evidence that young Victorians with parents born outside Australia have lower rates of drug use. Adequate school facilities emerged as a priority concern amongst the Horn of Africa and Timorese students. The opportunity to experience activities such as school camps, sufficient sporting facilities and quality educational opportunities were all important to these groups. Indications from the present study suggest that in many schools increasing student opportunities may make an important contribution to preventing drug problems.
     

    Session 6e (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Diana Smart & Ann Sanson, Australian Institute of Family Studies; Lisa Johnson & John Toumbourou, University of Melbourne
    Civic responsibility among Australian adolescents

    Identity formation, understanding of the self and one's place in society, is one of the key developmental tasks of adolescence (Erikson, 1982). One facet of this is civic responsibility, defined here as positive attitudes and behaviours relating to political or community issues. Data are presented from the Australian Temperament Project, a prospective large scale longitudinal study of the development of Australian children, on aspects of civic responsibility at 15-18 years of age. While most adolescents showed considerable concern about the future and a belief in individual responsibility, few actively participated in community or political activities. Concurrent and longitudinal predictors of civic responsibility were investigated, Civic responsibility was related to a preference for cooperative rather than competitive activities. Girls showed higher levels of prosocial, community-oriented activity, but there were few sex differences in more politically oriented activities. Level of concern about the future and strength of belief in individual responsibility were associated with the degree of civic responsibility. While individual characteristics, particularly higher activity levels and positive self-esteem, were found to be important predictors of community and political civic responsibility, the most powerful predictor was whether one's close friends were committed to and participated in political and community activities. One implication of these findings is that encouraging adolescents to work together in groups when participating in community or political activities may be useful way of fostering civic responsibility.
     

    Session 6e (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Ben Williams & John Tombourou, University of Melbourne; Ann Sanson & Diana Smart, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Patterns of Substance Usage in Victorian Adolescents Between 13 and 16

    The 'drug problem' continues to be a major societal concern, with heated debate on the best prevention, control and treatment options. A particular concern is how and why young people initiate and escalate drug use. However, there are few data sets available which can shed light on these questions. The Australian Temperament Project (ATP) has followed a large sample of children from infancy to adolescence, and has available detailed data on patterns of substance use from 13 years of age, as well as on individual, family and relationship factors which are likely to he relevant to the initiation and escalation of substance use.

    In this study, longitudinal data from the ATP was examined with regard to the prediction of selfreported frequent substance use. Individual, psychological and family variables measured in 1996 (at age 13-14 years) were used in a logistic regression to predict substance usage in 1998 (age 15-16). General risk and protective factors were identified, but analysis based on specific patterns of early substance use also found unique factors for the initiation and cessation of frequent substance use over the two-year period. An exploration of infancy and early childhood measures found generally mixed results, and more temporally proximal measures were better predictors of specific substance use behaviour. Results argue for the separate consideration of specific clusters of individuals as a means of identifying predictive constructs.

    Delinquent behaviours and relationships with peers emerged as extremely important predictors of the initiation of frequent substance use, suggesting that the person in her/his social context should be a primary target for future research and intervention. Parental punishment practices also emerged as significant predictors of substance use, but the effect of physical punishment varied with different substance usage patterns. This observation suggests an increased sensitivity to individual situations is preferred over coverall 'good parenting practice.'

    The results will be discussed in relation to current controversies about the prevention and control of drug use among young people.
     

    Session 6f: Families in Poverty

    Session 6f (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Aggie Szukalska & Ann Harding, National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling (NATSEM)
    The changing face of poverty in Australia, 1982 to 1997-98

    This paper examines changes in the incidence of poverty among children and among all Australians between 1981-82 and 1997-98. It uses the income distribution surveys issued by the ABS to explore trends in aggregate poverty,using a number of different poverty lines. The poverty lines used comprise the Henderson poverty line, the half average income poverty line, the half median income poverty line and the OECD half median poverty line.

    The paper also examines whether the characteristics of those in poverty have changed during this 17 year period. Finally, the paper analyses changes in the real level of relevant social security payments.
     

    Session 6f (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Jeannette Johnson & Janet Taylor, Brotherhood of St Laurence
    'The Invisible Australians': Conceptions of poverty in Australia

    This project looking at Australian conceptions of poverty developed from work undertaken by the Brotherhood of St Laurence, which identified the impacts of substantial economic and social change occurring over the 1990s on the lives of the most vulnerable. Concerns were raised that these changes might also be contributing to new or narrower views about what poverty is, as well as to changing community attitudes to possible and necessary responses to poverty. In particular, the wellbeing of economically disadvantaged families could be at stake as a result of the impact of such attitudes.
    The general aims of the study are to:
    • Increase our understanding of different perspectives within Australian society about the nature of, causes and responses to poverty
    • Through this increased understanding to stimulate action for a more equitable Australian society and to better engage with the community and decision-makers for effective change.
    The paper presents findings from an initial qualitative study (twenty-two focus group discussions) and a follow-up random telephone survey (400 interviews) with the general community. The research was conducted in metro and rural N.S.W., Victoria and Tasmania.

    In particular the paper discusses the general community's definition of poverty and its causes and manifestations in our community. It examines the importance attached to poverty as a social issue, both in the contextual context of eight competing social issues and in terms of its perceived severity in Australia. In particular the paper focuses on societal attitudes towards poverty and how attitudes vary between demographic and lifecycle groupings. Key areas of exploration include family breakdown, lack of community cohesion, the perceived adequacy of welfare, corporate responsibility and concerns about the kind of future Australians may experience if poverty is not addressed. General public perceptions about responsibility for addressing poverty and their flexibility in terms of taxation and spending on poverty are explored.


    Session 6f (Wednesday 26th 9.00-10.30am)
    Peter Saunders & Ceri Evans, Social Policy Research Centre
    Attitudes to Social Change and Conceptions of Poverty Among Australian Families
    The increasing emphasis being given to issues of dependency and incentives in social policy debate has resulted in less attention being given to the adequacy of social benefits and to the whole issue of poverty. The Henderson poverty line remains under attack and yet there is still no serious alternative benchmark in sight. Disagreement among researchers over the measurement of poverty and its statistical trend has put poverty research in a bad light and undermined the value of poverty statistics. Against this background, this paper will present results derived from a public opinion survey designed to explore how Australians think about poverty and what causes it. The survey, conducted in mid-1999, asked around 2,500 Australians their views on a number of factors and forces related to poverty and unemployment.

    The paper focuses in particular on the survey's findings about which items are regarded as essential in contemporary Australia and how adequate Australian families regard their own incomes in relation to their needs. Drawing on earlier SPRC research on the determination of a poverty line based on subjective assessments of minimum income, the paper will investigate whether this approach is able to produce estimates of the incomes that correspond to poverty for different family types that are plausible and consistent over time. Finally, the paper will explore the links between the factors that affect how different families conceive of their own poverty and the poverty of others, their attitudes to social and economic change and to the causes of poverty and unemployment.
     

    Wednesday, July 26th, 1.30-3.00pm

    Session 7a: Child abuse and protection

    Session 7a (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Liz Poole & Adam Tomison, National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    Preventing child abuse in Australia: Some preliminary findings from a national audit of prevention programs

    In 1999 and 2000 the National Child Protection Clearinghouse, with the support of the National Council for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, and the various State/Territory child protection departments, undertook a national audit of child abuse prevention programs operating across Australia.

    The intention was to provide an overview of prevention initiatives currently being undertaken across the nation, to identify trends and any gaps in service provision, and to generate discussion of future directions in child abuse prevention.

    The aim of this paper is to present a preliminary analysis of the results of the audit, describing the range and scope of prevention programs identified, the types of groups or organisations involved in operating these programs, and to highlight trends in service provision, including cross-sectoral prevention initiatives and community-building approaches. The paper concludes with a discussion of the efficacy of the audit methodology and the extent to which the Clearinghouse was able to develop a truly national picture of the current state of child abuse prevention in Australia.
     

    Session 7a (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Helen Johnstone, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
    The national child protection data collection - what does 10 years worth of data tell us?

    The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare has been collating the national child protection data since 1990-91. These data are provided to the Institute by State and Territory community service departments who have responsibility for child protection matters.

    The national collection includes three separate data collections:
    • child protection notifications, investigations and substantiations;
    • children on care and protection orders; and
    • children in out-of-home care (collected since 1995-96).

    This paper analyses the last 10 years of the national child protection data to see what it can tell us about child protection in Australia. The paper focuses mainly on the data on child protection notifications and substantiations, but some data on children on care and protection orders and children in out-of-home care are also included. While there are nationally agreed definitions and counting rules used to compile the data, each jurisdiction has their own legislation, policies and practices in relation to child protection and these impact on the data they provide to the Institute.

    The comparability of the data is examined and some of the major differences between jurisdictions in child protection systems and in the child protection data are highlighted. Trends in the number and rate of children in the child protection system are then examined on a State by State basis. Trends in child protection need to be interpreted carefully, however, as child protection policy and practices in some jurisdictions have changed considerably over the last 10 years. Such changes can have a major impact on the number of children reported to be in need of protection.

    The likely impact of policy changes and other factors in explaining trends in child protection are discussed. The over representation of Indigenous children in the child protection system has been well documented. Trends in the number and rate of Indigenous children in the child protection system over the last 10 years are also examined.
     

    Session 7a (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Roslyn Phillips, Festival of Light (South Australia) & Babette Francis, Endeavour Forum Inc.
    Some Strategies for Reducing the Incidence of Child Abuse and Neglect in Australia
    In this paper , the authors survey the literature indicating parental factors with a higher than expected incidence of child abuse and neglect, including research by Dr Philip Ney, MA, MD, FRCP, Department of Family Practice, University of British Columbia; David, Rasmussen and Holst of Denmark; and others. They then, review Australian child abuse and neglect statistics, pinpointing family types at greatest risk of substantiated child abuse and neglect cases. A discussion of possible reasons why parental factors and family types may be over-represented in child abuse cases, leading to suggested government strategies for reducing the incidence of abuse.
     

    Session 7b: Supporting parenting and parent-child relationships

    Session 7b (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Victoria Banham, Alice Higgins, Jane Hanson & Michelle Jarratt, Edith Cowan University
    Parenting Skills: The way parents communicate and the effect on the young child's developing self concept

    Through parent-child interactions, parents communicate their expectations and attitudes to their child using verbal and non-verbal language to convey meaning within different situations and settings (Bigner, 1994; Gonazalez-Mena, 1993). Mothers and fathers are the primary socialisers of young children thus the impact of communication from mothers and fathers to their children has far reaching consequences. Bigner (1994) claims that the socialisation of children may be the remaining principal function that families perform for society. Smith (1998:1) in her research on communication in families concluded that 'effective parenting must be the first priority; and effective parenting is built on communication'. She added that, 'planned, ongoing communication is the crucial missing link in many families'. In Landry's (n.d) research on the importance of parent-child interactions, she concluded that constant negative and restrictive verbalizations, was shown to have a negative impact on social development and competence. Furthermore, she reported that high quality parent-child interactions produced children with the highest rate of cognitive development by four and a half years of age.

    In Australia many different parenting styles are acknowledged, some more accepted than others. The Australian government, in response, has funded numerous parenting programs aimed at educating families and society in general as it appears to be aware of the link between certain parenting styles and emotional and behavioural disorders in children (Clark, 1999).

    This study utilises the three main parenting styles - authoritarian, authoritative and permissive as a framework for presenting storyboards to mothers and fathers of children 3 - 5 years of age. The storyboards depict mothers and fathers using the phrase ' 'how many times have I told you' whilst communicating with their young children. The data from the responses of the mothers and fathers will be analysed to determine if mothers and fathers show any understanding of the impact of whether the context, manner (verbal & non-verbal) and intent of their communication through using this phrase has any effect on the young child's developing self-concept.

    It is envisaged that this study will identify the need for further parent education and training to raise awareness of the impact that mothers and fathers communication may have on their child's development of self-concept, especially in the first five years.
     

    Session 7b (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Lyn Littlefield & Janine Manjiviona, Victorian Parenting Centre
    The Parent Resilience Project

    'Parent Resilience' is a collaborative project involving the Victorian Parenting Centre and the nine Regional Parenting Resource Services across the State of Victoria. The aim of the project is to learn more about the stresses experienced by parents of different aged children and in various types of family constellations and localities, as well as how they deal with these stresses and successfully raise their children. In addition, the project is designed to identify factors that contribute to the well being and resilience of families themselves.

    Focus groups, consisting of approximately ten parents in each, were conducted across the State of Victoria in urban and rural regions. Topics for discussion revolved around the different kinds of stresses that parents experience and the strategies they use to help them cope. Qualitative and quantitative analyses identified common themes that emerged, as well as differences according to contexts. The outcome was converted into a survey which was distributed to a large number of parents across Victoria to build a comprehensive account of the challenges facing Victorian parents today and what they consider they need to cope. These results will be presented and risk and resilience factors impacting on parenting discussed. The way in which this valuable information will inform services to communities so they can improve their support to parents and families in Victoria will be outlined.
     

    Session 7b (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Wendy Jones, Angela Papoutsoglou, Karen Monk & Lisa Scully, Human Services Victoria
    Pilot residential parenting assessment program For high risk infant families

    In 1998 all nine regions of the Department of Human Services, Victoria, received new funds to develop Parenting Assessment and Skill Development Services (PASDS) as a key component of the High Risk Infants Initiative. The High Risk Infants Initiative was established following findings by the Victorian Auditor General and the Victorian Child Death Review Committee that inadequate risk assessment and risk management, poor performance in Children's Court applications and difficulties working with the wider service system were at times contributing to poor management of high risk infant cases by Child Protection in Victoria. In Southern Metropolitan Region, it was determined that a combination of residential and home-based services were required to fully meet the needs of child protection for assessment of parenting capacity and skill development, and that the residential component was a priority and would be established first. The Queen Elizabeth Early Parenting Centre (QEC), situated in a purpose built facility within the Southern Metropolitan Region provides both residential and day programs for families with children under three years of age experiencing difficulties with parenting. This paper discusses the development of the program through identification of service requirements, Overcoming previous problems, service design, service operation and evaluation of the pilot service over the 12mth period. Evaluation of the first year of the pilot operation has been extremely positive with anticipated hurdles largely overcome. Many clients assessed as high risk by child protection (47%) were able to develop the skills required to parent their children satisfactorily from the primary health system and, with support, leave the child protection system. A major finding was that being able to determine those clients without the skills to care for their children enables child protection to act in a more timely manner to ensure that these infants received the protection they needed. Six months after the QEC assessment 70% of clients remaining within the child protection system were on a final court order.
     

    Session 7c: Longitudinal Data and Family Studies - Symposium     (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)

    This symposium will focus on the contribution of longitudinal data to our understanding of factors affecting family functioning and wellbeing and the impact of families on the health and wellbeing of individuals. The symposium will highlight both the value of longitudinal data collections, and the complexities involved in establishing such studies. Two of the papers presented will describe large longitudinal studies that are in the planning stages (the Australian Family Panel Survey and the Millennium Generation Longitudinal Study), and highlight the trade-offs that are involved in selecting feasible study designs. The remaining papers will describe data from three existing Australian longitudinal studies (the Australian Temperament Study, the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy, and the Australian Women's Health Longitudinal Study), focussing on results of relevance to understanding families, and family transitions throughout the lifespan.


    Session 7c (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Jan Nicholson, Queensland University of Technology
    The Proposed Millennium Generation Longitudinal Study: Challenges in Designing a National Study

    This paper provides an overview of the proposed Millennium Generation Longitudinal Study. A large national consortium of researchers has been formed to develop the Study, which will examine the factors affecting the physical, social and mental health and wellbeing of Australian children in the 21st century. The Study will be a prospective study of a birth or pre-birth cohort, with additional samples of high-risk populations of interest. The aims of the study are broadly focussed and will have direct relevance for social policy development and service provision. The paper will provide an overview of the proposed design of the Study and key research themes. It will focus on the challenges of coordinating the study development activities across a large consortium, the importance of multi-disciplinary input from an early stage, and will highlight some of the challenges in research design.
     

    Session 7c (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Ruth Weston, Australian Institute of Family Studies
    The Australian Family Panel Survey: A n overview of its purpose and design

    This paper focuses on a new national longitudinal survey that will be conducted by the Australian Institute of Family Studies in Spring 2000: the Australian Family Panel Survey (AFPS). Such a venture involves the pooling of resources previously used by the Institute for ad hoc survey activity. The key aims of this survey are to build a master sample, to monitor personal and family wellbeing and family-related values, and to address core questions for projects in each of the Institute's three research programs (Children and Parenting, Family and Marriage, and Family and Society) and questions developed for bolt-on studies. In addition, the panel survey will provide data to enable swift analysis about certain policy relevant issues as they emerge. In addressing core questions for each research sub-program, the AFPS will inform the Commonwealth Government's National Families Strategy.

    A valuable feature of this survey is that information will be sought from all adults, and all adolescents from a certain age, in each household in the sample. Thus, from its inception, the AFPS will provide a rich source of data about family dynamics both within and across households. This paper will outline some of the research questions that the AFPS will address and the basic design of the study.


    Session 7c (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Cristina Lee, Anne Young, Julie Byles & Penny Warner-Smith, University of Newcastle
    Women's Health Australia: Healthy Women, Healthy Families

    Women's Health Australia (WHA) is a large-scale longitudinal project which was the initiative of the Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care. First funded in 1995, it involves a 20-year longitudinal survey of the health of Australia's women. The purpose of the project is to clarify relationships between women's health and biological, psychological, social, economic and lifestyle factors, with the overall goal of providing information of value to the Department in the formulation of policy and the evaluation of health services.

    The project involves three cohorts of women, randomly selected by HIC from the Medicare database, to represent young (aged 18-23 in 1996), mid-age (45-50), and older women (70-75). Over-sampling of women in rural and remote areas allows an examination of geographical variations in health and in access to health care. More than 41,000 women responded to mailed baseline surveys in 1996, and comparisons with 1996 census data suggest that they are reasonably representative of Australian women in these age groups. Over 50% have also agreed to linkage with their Medicare data. Each cohort will be followed up on a three-year rolling basis for twenty years; the middle-aged women were re-surveyed in 1998, with a response rate of 92%; the older women were surveyed in 1999 (91% response), and the young women are currently (May 2000) being surveyed.

    Our research strategy allows us to examine the effects of family structure and dynamics on adult women's health and well-being. Following an overview of the project as a whole, this paper presents data on the health and well-being of women who do and do not become mothers, of women who have family caregiving responsibilities, and of women with various relationships to the paid labour force, as well as data which illustrate the impact of widowhood on the lives of older women.

    Our methods allow us to combine quantitative and qualitative data from a large and representative sample of Australian women to develop a detailed picture of the factors which influence women's lives, and to provide input to policy at State and Commonwealth level. Methodological issues, including measurement, cohort maintenance, dealing with missing data, and strategies for collaboration with research groups who have related interests, will be discussed.


    Session 7c (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Jake Najman, William Bor, Michael O'Callaghan, Gail Williams & Greg Shuttlewood University of Queensland
    Family form and quality: changes over time

    It is clear that families are in transition, manifesting dramatic changes, many of these accelerating in recent years. The two primary changes of interest are, firstly, the increasing diversity of family forms and the willingness of partners to change their family membership over over time. Secondly, the quality of family life is being transformed with some evidence that couples in relationships increasingly report that their relationships are characterised by conflict and disagreement. While there are a number of studies which describe these changes in family form and family quality, there is little Australian data that is able to examine these changes in a defined cohort.

    In this paper we are concerned with two issues: firstly, the extent to which family forms change over time from pregnancy until the child reaches teenage years; and secondly, the extent to which families followed over this period remain intact but manifest changes in the quality of the relationship between the couple.

    Methods:
    Data here is taken from the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy. This is a prospective longitudinal study of 8,458 mothers who were enrolled at their first clinic visit at a large hospital in Brisbane. These mothers have been followed for 15 years since entry to the study. In this paper we take data from the first clinic visit and from the 5- and 14-year follow-ups. We examine changes in family form over time and provide a multivariate model of predictors of family change. In the second series of analyses we examine changes in the quality of the relationship over the same period of time and provide a second multivariate model which examines the factors that predict declines in marital quality. The results suggest that changes in marital form and marital quality are a function of a number of social and demographic characteristics of the mother.

    It is likely that mothers have altered their expectations of their relationship with their partner and of their involvement in child care and child rearing. It is likely that these changes in expectations will continue and that the future will be characterised by continuing declines in marital stability, an increased willingness to engage in non-permanent relationships and a continuing decrease in the quality of the dyadic relationship as this is assessed by the mother.


    Session 7d: Young adults, moving towards independence

    Session 7d (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Michelle Gabriel, University of Tasmania
    Between homes: A study of Australia's regional 'youth exodus'

    Statistical evidence of a 'youth exodus' from regional Australia suggests a dramatic reworking of fixed spatial identities, and the novel reinvention of the relationship between young people and an increasingly imagined 'home'. The focus of this three year study gravitates between the experiences of young people as they negotiate life between their former family home and new urban territories, and the discursive fields in which the 'regional youth exodus' phenomenon is positioned. In illustrating shifts in the way community and family relations are negotiated by young people, this project provides a critique of the limits of 'community' as deployed within both contemporary sociological research and Australian public policy. In this paper, I discuss some preliminary findings arising from the first component of my study in the context of theoretical contentions over 'community', 'subjectivity' and 'space'. My findings relate to demographic data analysis of youth migration patterns, and analysis of radio documentaries produced by regional youth for the ABC initiative 'Heywire'. Here I provide a profile of the 'youth exodus' phenomenon as experienced in different regions across Australia, and specify how young people imagine and enlist community in their accounts of their regional home town.
     

    Session 7d (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Ross Kelly & Phil Lewis, Director, Murdoch University
    Neighbourhoods, Families and Youth Employment Outcomes: A Study of the Melbourne Metropolitan Region

    Youth unemployment in Australia frequently occupies the political centre stage and is generally considered to be a significant problem. However, it is quite often misrepresented and most certainly the parameters of the problem are not well understood by policy makers. The following paper examines the influence of intergenerational effects and geography on the employment prospects of teenagers in the Melbourne metropolitan region. The study utilises data from the 1991 and 1996 Censuses of Population and Housing to determine the impact of family and neighbourhood on youth employment outcomes. There is evidence that the burden of unemployment is not borne equally by neighbourhoods within metropolitan regions and that demographic characteristics of neighbourhoods are a significant causal factor in the employment outcomes of youths. It is also apparent that the economic recovery that has taken place since 1991 has not benefited teenagers living in areas with a low socioeconomic status. The implication for policy is that the targeting of individuals or groups at risk of unemployment may not be appropriate unless the relationships between youth unemployment, region and demography are taken into account.
     

    Session 7d (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Maria Luteria & Philip Brown, Department of Family and Community Services
    Financial Independence and Youth Allowance: Young people and parents' views

    Youth Allowance (YA) was introduced on 1 July 1998 as a single income support payment for young people who are studying, looking for work, or undertaking a combination of activities. One of the main policy changes introduced under YA was the extension of parental means testing to unemployed young people aged 18-20. As part of the evaluation of this measure, the Department of Family and Community Services (FaCS) is undertaking the Family Responses to YA Survey to examine the impact of YA on the attitudes, expectations, perceptions and behavioural responses of young people and their parents.

    This paper presents key findings from the first and second phases of this survey, and examines attitudes to financial support of young people, parental means testing, parental support, financial independence of young people, and participation in education and the labour market. Phase one of the survey found:
    1. the parental views on financial responsibility for young people depended on whether they were job seekers or students - parents were more likely to view the government as most responsible for financially supporting job seekers while parents tended to perceive themselves as most responsible for financially supporting students;
    2. the principle of parental means testing was supported by a majority of parents;
    3. parents with higher income levels and who perceive that their young person is in need were more likely to be willing to provide support and were more likely to accept them remaining at home; and
    4. the level of parental support provided was greater for young people aged 16-17, still living at home, full-time students, and with annual parental income between $40,000 to $60,000.

    Phase two of the survey is expected to be completed in June 2000 and it is anticipated that the paper will present results from phase two and compare these with phase one.
     

    Session 7e: Developing effective Family Policy

    Session 7e (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Jenni Ibrahim, Family & Children's Policy Office- WA
    Developing a Plan for Families: Listening to the Community

    The paper presents a report on an extensive consultation with families and children across the nation's largest State to inform cross-sectoral public policy development. The Western Australian Family and Children's Policy Office together with the Family & Children's Advisory Council conducted the consultation, assisted by a number of community facilitators. The views of families and children were seen as central to the development of the State's first Five Year Plan for Families. Families and children could express their views in a number of ways - through group discussions and/or individual submissions by mail, telephone, fax, email and online. Special groups were held with men, indigenous families, newly emerging migrant communities, children and young people. This would appear to be one of the first times in recent years that young people aged from three to twenty years have been consulted directly on family issues. The views of service providers and peak organisations provided another source of input.

    The consultation questions were based on a literature review. These questions covered three areas:
    1. strengthening individuals and relationships within the family,
    2. strengthening family links with the neighbourhood and the community; and
    3. the role of government, community and business organisations in developing work practices and in delivering services that are responsive to families.

    The project used a qualitative data analysis approach backed up by qualitative data collection covering key issues identified in the group discussions to ensure that both a richness and diversity of views was obtained as well as an indication of the extent to which these views were held. An outline of the approach taken and a summary of the key findings will be presented and their implications discussed. The emerging issues span the themes of parenting, relationships, fathers, work and family, community building and urban design, family friendly business and Government services.


    Session 7e (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Wendy Weeks, University of Melbourne
    Age and gender assumptions in Australian family policies: do they enhance or impede democratic and co-operative family relationships?

    This paper will explore the contradictions in family and family-related policies and practices as they impede democracy and co-operation within family groups and networks. It will explore two sets of assumptions influential in family policies.

    First, it will examine assumptions which are related to age and parental obligation. Family and family-related policies concerned with 'care' and 'co-operation' between resident family groups, especially involving adults, and non-resident family networks concerned with inter-generational caring are fraught with contradictions and barriers to co-operation. For example, adults over 18 years are treated as individuals, in spite of increasing numbers of young people being at least partially dependent on parents for longer periods. Related adult family members living together are considered 'individuals' for purposes such as health insurance, regardless of 'who pays?' and 'who can afford to pay?'Similarly, adult family members of non-resident 'care' networks have no particular rights to information or support, in spite of implicit expectations, from themselves, as well as from service providers, that they will be 'active carers'. Such contradictions demand a revisiting of assumptions about 'individuals' and 'family'

    Second, the paper will consider gender assumptions, as they play themselves out in a hierarchy of needs and imputed rights, antagonistic to co-operation and democratic meeting of needs of women, men and children. In 1984, Margrit Eichler proposed three models of family underpinning social security legislation and policies: the patriarchal model, the egalitarian model and the emancipated model . Using her framework, my paper will revisit and reconsider, sixteen years later, how individualism, familism and gender assumptions operate in Australian family policies.

    The paper will draw on a range of selected policies to illustrate the claims made.
     

    Session 7e (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Judi Geggie, University of Newcastle
    Findings from the Australian Family Strengths Project

    Over 500 Australian families have taken part in a research project, which asked them to describe what they consider to be the strengths of their family. The Project 'Building Family Strengths — A Resource for the Community' was funded by the Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services and was undertaken by the Family Action Centre at the University of Newcastle.

    The participants of this research project were members of nuclear families, sole parent families, step/blended families, couple families and same sex families from a range of socio-economic groups.

    The research, both qualitative and quantitative, has revealed which strengths Australian families consider valuable and desirable to deal with the day to day challenges of family life and major life crises. Some of these strengths included Togetherness, Communication, Acceptance, Sense of Belonging and Place, Commitment and Family Customs. In our presentation we will share our findings of both the quantitative and the qualitative research.

    Based on the findings of the quantitative research, a 30-item inventory of Australian Family Strengths has been developed. This inventory could be developed into an assessment tool for family practitioners to assist families in recognising their strengths, and defining their areas of potential growth.

    Furthermore, the Family Action Centre aims to utilise the findings of the research project to develop community resources, such as the above mentioned assessment tool, but also, for example, family strength cards and board games, and a program for family strengthening workshops.


    Session 7f: Coping with trauma

    Session 7f (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Shirley Yeates & Jo Grimwade, Victoria University
    Families and the aftermath of road trauma

    Family is a social given, however, the diverse effects of motor vehicle accidents might be better understood as fractures of family assumptions than as tales of broken bones, bent bumpers, big bills and barristers' bargainings. A literature review of the aftermath of road trauma, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and the ripple effects on families is presented. In Victoria it has been found that motor vehicle accidents are the most common single cause of trauma (National Road Traffic Advisory Council, 1993). The Australian Transport Safety Bureau reported that in 1998 the total road fatalities was 1763 and in 1997 a total of 21,531 persons were hospitalised. It will be argued that although the effects or aftermath of road trauma are different from one family to the next, by gaining an increased awareness of these issues helps families to make sense out of what seems an untenable situation. Previous road trauma studies, both quantitative and qualitative, reveal the status of research documentation and family counselling regarding the long term needs of families. Chronic PTSD may be as likely to be a consequence of issues of litigation, labeling, guilt/ blame/ responsibility as a survivor of an accident and the loss of quality of life, and family dislocation, as the MVA, itself. It will be suggested that providing information to families could enable them to decrease family stress and increase family adjustment. Family therapists, armed with such information, will be better positioned to recognise the complex interactivity of the social and psychological problems and put into place appropriate interventions. The development of family-based information packages is advocated.
     

    Session 7f (Wednesday 26th 1.30-3.00pm)
    Eileen Pittaway, University of New South Wales
    Surviving war - surviving peace - Working with refugee and other families who have experienced torture and trauma in conflict situations

    The changing nature of war and warfare in the latter part of the twentieth century has meant that now, more than ever before, civilians are the focus of battles, armed conflict and torture. This exposes whole populations to trauma, and the sequelae is now even more destructive than in it was in the past (Goldson, 1996). As a result, refugee children, young people and women are frequently survivors of torture and trauma in their own country. Many have also had horrific experiences during their escape to a country of asylum. Resettlement in a third country is also traumatic as it requires surviving their past experience and adapting to changes in traditional family structure, roles, culture and language.

    It is estimated that about 40 % of the approximately 12 thousand people who enter Australia annually as part of the Refugee and Special Humanitarian Intake are children and young people. These children have often suffered from severe hardship, have had their sense of safety violated, suffered physical abuse, neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse and exploitation, been forced to fight as child soldiers and have witnessed and/ or been tortured.

    Refugee children and young people have to cope with such a range of traumatic incidents and human rights violations in the process of their cognitive, emotional, social and physical development. They are often dependent on adults who are themselves traumatised, and unable to meet the developmental needs of their children, This makes them particularly vulnerable to mental health problems (Baker, 1994).

    The paper will explore the often unacknowledged consequences of torture and trauma on refugee children and their families who resettle in Australia and examine ways of working with families to address the effects of this experience on all members of the family.

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