Continued...

• Book review: The prevalence of child maltreatment in the UK / Ellen Fish HTML | PDF
• Book note: Demystifying sexual abuse counselling for children / Ellen Fish HTML | PDF
• Children's books on child protection issues / Susan Fooks HTML | PDF
• Literature highlights / Joan Kelleher HTML | PDF

Book review

ELLEN FISH discusses a major new population study from the United Kingdom that documents the extent and nature of children's experiences of child abuse and neglect, both inside and outside of the family, when they were aged under 16 years.

The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), has recently published a report of the first major general population study of the prevalence of child maltreatment in the United Kingdom. The study was based on the retrospective reports of a national, randomly selected sample of young people aged from 18 to 24 years (born between 1974 and 1980). The report documents the extent and nature of their experiences of child abuse and neglect, both inside and outside of the family, when they were aged under 16 years.

Although previous prevalence studies have typically assessed physical and/or sexual abuse only, this NSPCC study has attempted to determine children and young people's experience of the gamut of maltreatment experiences. The decision was taken to assess childhood experiences of not just physical and sexual abuse, but also emotional abuse and neglect (collectively described as "child maltreatment"), which makes this study one of the few worldwide that addresses the prevalence of maltreatment in such a comprehensive and authoritative way.

Aims of study

Like many prevalence studies, the key aim of this study is the determination of the extent of the various forms of child maltreatment occurring in the general population. This data will enable the establishment of benchmarks "from which it will be possible to monitor future changes and trends in the maltreatment of children, and in public attitudes to child abuse and neglect" (p.1) and enable the monitoring of changes in the treatment of children and young people over the next ten years.

In addition, the study was designed to compensate for deficiencies in existing data through the provision of believable and reliable measures that will stand up "in the context of social and cultural differences due to social class, ethnicity and region" (p.1) Overall, the results of the survey will help agency planning and the provision of child protection services, steering resources to better service the needs of children, in particular "by addressing the under-reporting of the various types of maltreatment" (p.1).

Issues of definition

"Maltreatment occurs along a continuum of ways to treat children and this explains the difficulty of the identification generally of accepted cut-off points at which neat divides from acceptable to unacceptable to abusive may be made." (p.5)

As with all prevalence studies, how child abuse and neglect are defined will affect the determination of the occurrence of maltreatment. Merely including emotional maltreatment and neglect as categories will alter the resultant estimate of prevalence. Such definitional issues identified by the authors included: first, the difficulty in identifying the demarcation between abuse and neglect and other forms of harm, including those that arise from less than adequate parenting or from social factors such as poverty; second, variations in what is defined as maltreatment because of cultural and intergenerational differences; third, the difficulties associated with the development of "single measures" of abuse or neglect that can minimise the great diversity in harms that children can experience during their childhood; and fourth, the interrelationship or overlapping between the various forms of maltreatment (for example, physical and emotional abuse may co-occur).

Cawson and colleagues have attempted to overcome the definitional problems and limitations that plague prevalence studies by adopting a behavioural approach. Rather than subjectively predefining child abuse and neglect, the authors have asked respondents to identify whether specific acts of commission or omission have occurred, and have attempted to measure the nature, frequency or severity of maltreatment. The authors used this "behaviours" approach for the range of abuse types, from which conclusions have then been drawn about the prevalence of physical neglect, physical abuse, emotional maltreatment and child sexual abuse.

For example, with regard to physical punishment and physical abuse, first, the line between reasonable and unreasonable physical punishment is difficult to define. Second, as Cawson et al. note, there is great variation in the experience of physical abuse and whether it is interpreted as abuse. Further, when assessing physical abuse it is not uncommon for a variety of physically abusive experiences, such as being beaten, kicked or burned to be combined and assessed as a single experience of being "physically abused". Such an approach is problematic in that it can minimise the reality of the abusive experience.

Another major issue acknowledged by the authors is the considerable differences that exist between research based on the assessment of maltreatment by professionals as compared to the recipients of abuse. They point out that this a reflection of the different criteria used. "Professionals judge by what was actually done to the victim, by whether the victim suffered harm or by a mixture of these factors. Victims take other things into account, such as their relationship with the person harming them, an understanding of the health problems or pressures on that person which might have affected their behaviour, or by comparison of their treatment to that of other children in the family and neighbourhood" (Cawson et al, 2000:5). Thus, as with previous studies, Cawson et al. have utilised the retrospective self-reports of young people, but also provided a professional interpretation and classification of the findings Í post hoc.

The problematic nature of definitions of child maltreatment is a recurring theme throughout the report. The methods used by the authors to overcome these problems, will be of great interest to child protection workers and other researchers in terms of developing other prevalence studies and defining maltreatment for other research and practice purposes.

Family life

Despite a focus on the prevalence of child maltreatment experienced by the young people in this community sample, Cawson et al. recognised that it is only a minority of the population who actually experience what is defined by professionals as "child maltreatment". Thus, to put the findings within an overall general population context, the authors provide an overview of family life on a number of dimensions.

As expected, approximately 90 per cent of the young people reported that they had been well cared for as children and had a warm and loving family background. Thus, most respondents reported being praised or told they had done something well by their parents, many respected their mother as a role model, and most had freedom to express their views (although a third found it difficult to talk to their parents about sex). In contrast, one third of respondents reported there was "a lot of stress" in their families with the same proportion reporting financial pressures and worries. Nearly a fifth reported having to regularly shoulder responsibilities at an early age because their parents were ill, disabled, had substance abuse problems or needed emotional support because of divorce or bereavement. Overall, less than 10 per cent of the sample reported having suffered from one or more forms of serious maltreatment at home.

Physical discipline

In order to accurately determine respondents' experiences of physical discipline and physical abuse, (ranging from mild physical discipline through to "serious" physical abuse), the authors asked respondents whether they had experienced a range of behaviours broadly defined as "physical treatment/discipline". Their reasoning for doing so was because of the known variation that exists between what people consider to be reasonable physical punishment versus physical abuse.

According to the young people's responses, it appeared that in most families discipline was reported to be based on reasoning, explanation and non-physical punishment. However, approximately three quarters of respondents reported that they had received physical discipline, which was described mostly as a mild and infrequent slap on the leg, arm or hand or the buttocks with a bare hand.

"Attitudes are important to understand when measuring the prevalence of abuse since there may be a relationship between attitudes, perceptions, self reporting and experience of abuse." (Cawson et al. 2000:21)

Respondents' attitudes to physical punishment or more broadly, acceptable and unacceptable ways of treating and disciplining children, were investigated in this survey. The relationship between attitudes and subsequent behaviour is also important because respondents' views on disciplining will impact on how they subsequently raise their own children.

Most respondents considered that the method of discipline most appropriate was verbal discussion and non-physical punishment, such as giving additional chores, withdrawing privileges and grounding. More than 60 per cent thought it was never justified to ignore a child or to threaten beatings. Seventy per cent of respondents felt that making a child miss a meal, embarrassing or humiliating a child was unacceptable behaviour. About half of the sample (52 per cent) thought an open-handed smack was occasionally justified but only 10 per cent thought this often justified. The use of implements to hit a child or closed-fist hitting was unacceptable to nearly the whole sample (88-95 per cent).

These results are congruent with previous research and assist in the development of a "social consensus which is a reliable and stable feature of values about the treatment of children" and give a foundation from which to judge child maltreatment in the United Kingdom (Cawson et al. 2000:25).

Physical abuse

"Although all physical punishment involves the use of physical force, whether it is defined as ®violence' in the context of the criminal law or of public opinion is culturally determined." (p.31)

In most prevalence studies conducted to date, physical abuse has been measured using the Conflicts Tactics Scale (Straus 1979). In this study however, Cawson et al. used the three levels of physical abuse developed by Bilfulco and Moran (1998) in order to define physical abuse and to identify the points at which the use of physical force towards young people reached a level that could be considered abusive. These levels were: serious physical abuse, intermediate physical abuse, and cause for concern.

Serious physical abuse was defined as having experienced behaviours ranging from being hit with an object, being shaken/thrown, being punched/kicked or threatened with a weapon such that physical injury was caused, or there was a high risk of injury if the abuse continued. Intermediate physical abuse by parents/carers was said to occur if the "violent treatment" occurred irregularly, without causing injury, or where it occurred regularly and left physical effects lasting at least 24 hours. Cause for concern was defined as injury or potential harm that was not immediately serious but where a lower level of physical treatment/discipline occurred regularly indicating a problem that could escalate or lead to continued distress for a child. "Mild" physical discipline, such as infrequent smacking with an open hand that caused no lasting effect was excluded from the physical abuse rating.

One quarter of the population reported suffering at least one physically violent experience as a child at the hands of family, peers or others, an experience reported by slightly more men (27 per cent) than women (23 per cent). Overall, with regard to the physical abuse experienced at the hands of parents or other caregivers, (combining the three physical abuse categories), 21 per cent of the sample were assessed as having experienced physical abuse.

Specifically, 7 per cent of the population experienced serious physical abuse as children at the hands of parents and carers, which included being beaten up, being hit with a fist or implement, burned and scalded. Most violence occurred at home (78 per cent) with mothers being primarily responsible in 49 per cent of cases and fathers in 40 per cent of cases. Fourteen per cent of respondents were assessed as having experienced some degree of physical abuse by parents and carers, that is "intermediate physical abuse". Three per cent experienced aspects of childrearing that gave "cause for concern".

Therefore, Cawson et al. concluded that one quarter of families had at some point, however infrequently, breached the standards of behaviour that appeared to be accepted by 90 per cent of the population. These findings could be usefully compared with other prevalence studies of physical abuse, which the authors included in an appendix to the report. Prevalence rates in these studies ranged from between one per cent and 31per cent.

Neglect

It is often noted that the investigation of neglect has often not been the focus of professionals and the wider community, despite the fact that it can have a greater negative impact in the longer term than the other forms of maltreatment (Tomison 1995). Similarly, most population-based prevalence studies have not attempted to incorporate an assessment of the nature and extent of neglect. It has been pointed out that "there is no agreed definition of neglect by which to measure prevalence" (Dubowitz et al. 1998, as cited in Cawson et al. 2000).

The other difficulty defining neglect, noted by Stevenson, is that "neglect is not a unitary concept but an administrative category covering a range of behaviours which are characterised by omission of care" (1998:14, as cited in Cawson et al. 2000:39). Thus, one of the significant benefits of this study has been the inclusion of measures of the prevalence of child neglect.

Neglect for the purposes of this study was conceived in terms of a failure to provide basic parental care and supervision and divided into the following categories: absence of care and absence of supervision. Within these two categories varying levels of severity were measured; that is, serious absence of care, intermediate absence of care and cause for concern (Cawson et al. 2000:43-46); and serious absence of supervision, intermediate absence of supervision and cause for concern about supervision. (Cawson et al. 2000:49-50)

The most common forms of neglect (serious absence of care) experienced were by six percent of the sample and included children frequently going hungry, not being taken to the doctor when ill, regularly having to look after themselves because of parental absence, being abandoned and/or living with dangerous physical conditions at home. The next most experienced form of neglect was a "serious absence of supervision", experienced by 5 per cent of the sample. This included children being placed at risk by being left alone at home overnight or where children had been overnight Í whereabouts unknown Í at a young age. Further, Cawson et al. determined that 12 per cent of respondents had been affected by an intermediate absence of supervision. This included less serious levels of risk and involved parentification, with the onus on the child to care for themselves, to care for younger siblings and at times, her/his parents, at a very young age (that is, under 12 years).

Emotional abuse

"If a parent inadvertently or deliberately engages in a pattern of inappropriate emotional responses, the child can be said to have experienced emotional abuse." (Tomison & Tucci 1997:1)

There is an increasing amount of evidence from child protection and research and practice suggesting that emotional abuse is a core element in the understanding of all maltreatment. Researchers who write on this subject consider that, because emotional abuse leaves no physical injuries and rarely precipitates a crisis, it the "most hidden and underestimated form of child maltreatment" (Cawson et al. 2000:54).

Yet like neglect, the prevalence of emotional abuse has rarely been measured, which again makes this UK study a valuable addition to the literature. Despite emotional abuse appearing to be the most prevalent form of child maltreatment, and one which many professionals believe produces the most destructive consequences (Garbarino & Vondra 1987 as cited in Tomison & Tucci 1997), "research into the impact and prevalence of emotional abuse has been plagued with disagreements about how to define it, measure it and treat it" (Tomison & Tucci 1997:1). These difficulties have been exacerbated by the inter-relationship between emotional abuse and other forms of maltreatment (Tomison and Tucci 1997).

As Cawson et al. note, other studies that have attempted to assess and categorise this type of abuse use a variety of terms: emotional maltreatment, emotional abuse, psychological maltreatment or abuse, psychological attack, emotional or psychological neglect. For the purposes of this prevalence study, Cawson et al. adopted the term emotional maltreatment which was operationalised along the following seven dimensions: psychological control and domination; psycho/physical control and domination; humiliation/degradation; withdrawal; antipathy; terrorising; and proxy attacks (that is, harming someone or something the child loves or values).

The authors noted the need for emotional maltreatment to be assessed along a continuum rather than as a dichotomous phenomenon, taking into account the whole range of emotionally abusive experiences (and varying levels of severity) that a child may encounter in a range of contexts over time. Thus, the measurement of emotional maltreatment was based on the assignment of rankings from 0 to 14 for each of the seven dimensions items. A score of 7 (the mid point) was deemed by the authors as indicating the existence of emotional maltreatment.

Overall, 6 per cent of respondents were defined as having suffered emotional maltreatment, having scores of 7 or more on at least four of the seven dimensions. Most respondents reported having experienced emotional maltreatment in each of the dimensions, mostly at the hands of parents or substitute parents. The most common form of emotional maltreatment reported was being terrorised, which was reported by over one third of the sample, with "psychological control and domination" reported by nearly one quarter of the sample.

Sexual abuse

As with all types of child maltreatment, there are considerable differences of opinion as to how to define child sexual abuse. Most studies agree that sexual acts occurring against the child's wishes are abusive, but problems arise in deciding when a child is competent to give "informed consent".

Sexual abuse for the purposes of this study was divided into three categories. Category A is "abuse involving physical contact with genital, anal or other private parts of the body", Category B is "abuse involving physical contact with other parts of the body" and Category C is "abuse not involving physical contact" (Cawson et al. 2000:84).

In this study respondents were asked to report on specific sexual acts they had experienced when they were under 16 years old. Those who had such experiences were then were asked more questions in order to develop a better description of the incident(s), such as who was involved, whether the respondent had consented and their age at the time the incident took place.

Overall, the authors classified 11 per cent of the sample as having experienced sexual abuse, although only 6 per cent of the sample assessed themselves as having being sexually abused. In addition, only one quarter of respondents who had had unwanted sexual experiences, or experiences with a person aged more than five years older, had confided in anyone about it at the time.

Not surprisingly, most respondents identified a family member of someone known to them as the perpetrator of their abuse. One per cent of respondents reported experiencing non-consensual sexual contact with a parent, and 3 per cent experienced non-consensual sexual contact with another relative. Of particular interest was the high number of instances involving a male sibling perpetrator (brother/stepbrother) (ranging from 20-43 per cent across the types of sexual abuse; accounting for 38 per cent of penetrative/oral acts) which was much higher than that committed by natural fathers (11-23 per cent of all sexual abuse was committed by natural fathers; they accounted for 23 per cent of penetrative/oral acts), and for stepfathers (accounting for 9-19 per cent of all sexual abuse; 13 per cent of penetrative/oral acts). Only in the "indecent exposure" category was the perpetrator more likely to be identified as a stranger. Of the 7 per cent of respondents experiencing this form of abuse, one third identified the perpetrator as a stranger.

Issues

In addition to the definitional and methodological issues, two points are worth emphasising. First, Cawson et al. acknowledge that the study is likely to underestimate the total extent of maltreatment in the general population. With regard to their sampling procedures, the authors used a household base which they have acknowledged would not have included the socially excluded, that is the homeless, prisoners, or people in hospital or in institutionalised care. In addition, the authors acknowledge the impact of relying on the retrospective self-reports of young people. However, consideration should also be given to the impact of carrying out the surveys in the home, given that over half (56 per cent) of the young respondents were still living with their caregivers. Despite being able to complete the materials confidentially, continued residence in the family home may also have led to biases and under-reporting.

Second, on a related point, with regard to definition and perspective of maltreatment, the authors acknowledge the difference between professional assessment of abuse and self-assessed maltreatment, noting that those who have been brought up in a "culture of violence" may not recognise their experience as abusive and therefore not report it. "The present survey demonstrates, as has other research in this country and elsewhere, that people can suffer extremes of abusive and neglectful treatment in childhood and yet not consider themselves abused or neglected" (Cawson et al. 2000:102).

Some of the specific findings challenge conventional wisdom. The authors have produced a useful summary of common maltreatment stereotypes contrasted with the relevant findings from this study. One example of this is that there was not many respondents who were physically, sexually or emotionally abused by step-parents; "and very few were sexually abused by strangers or in public places" (p.101)

Conclusions

Overall, this study makes a valuable contribution to knowledge of the prevention of child maltreatment as well as to research practice. The study is the first general population prevalence study to be completed in the United Kingdom. It is also the first to have attempted to estimate the prevalence of child maltreatment in all its forms on such a large and representative scale.

Examining both attitudes and behaviours associated with child maltreatment, the authors have demonstrated that most young people had had a positive family experience. Identifying a small but significant proportion of young people who reported less than satisfying or abusive childhood experiences, Cawson et al. were able to create a baseline of the prevalence of child maltreatment in the population, providing a benchmark for future assessments.

One of the study's big advantages was its methodology. The report provides an excellent prototype for others carrying out similar research because of the methods used. First, the study was one of only a few that has examined the prevalence of child maltreatment in the wider community rather than only focusing on maltreatment that has come to the notice of child welfare and protection services (child protection reports or notifications). Most previous studies on prevalence have either utilised child protection registers or patient records from hospitals.

Second, as part of the methodological process, the authors devised a framework within which child maltreatment occurring both inside and outside the family can be better understood. Third, Cawson et al. reviewed the problematic nature of arriving at consistent definitions of child maltreatment and describe their proposed solutions. These have implications for researchers and those in the community who work in the child protection field. Finally, this study successfully highlights the problems of interpreting professional and community judgements of definitions of maltreatment Í how they may differ and their impact on developing the best practice in child protection and other child and family support services.

Thus, the results of this survey will be of value to agencies planning and providing child protection services, enabling better targeting of resources to meet the needs of children. The findings of this study will, according to the authors, assist also in monitoring of change in the treatment of children who have been maltreated, over the next ten years. Furthermore, the authors have proposed a number of recommendations which will facilitate policy, practice and research.

Later reports are planned by the authors to build on the current findings, and to go beyond descriptive work into more detailed analysis, exploring the causes and consequences of child maltreatment. The authors intend to examine the interrelationships between the various forms of maltreatment, maltreatment outside the family, and the longer term consequences of child abuse and neglect. Further, they intend to examine more closely the differences between professional interpretation and self-assessed abuse and neglect.

In Australia, there has been no general population survey of the prevalence of child maltreatment, only a few attempts to estimate the prevalence of child sexual abuse experienced by university student samples (for example, Goldman & Goldman 1988; Goldman and Padayachi 1997), and the regular compilations of national child protection statistics developed and produced by the Australian Institute of Health Welfare (for example, Johnstone, Moyle, Kelly & Dowling 2000). Thus, this study, its conclusions and recommendations, will be of great value not only to agencies and those conducting research into child abuse prevention in the United Kingdom, but will also serve as an aid to policy-makers, researchers and practitioners in Australia and worldwide.

References

Dubowitz, H., Klockner, A., Starr, R.H. and Black, M. (1998), "Community and professional definitions of child neglect", Child Maltreatment, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 235-243.

Goldman, J.D.G. & Padayachi, U.K. (1997), "The prevalence and nature of child sexual abuse in Queensland, Australia", Child Abuse & Neglect, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 489-498.

Goldman, R.J. & Goldman, J.D.G. (1998), "The prevalence and nature of child sexual abuse in Australia", Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage and Family, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 94-106.

Johnstone, H., Moyle, H., Kelly, S., Dowling, P. (2000), Child Protection Australia 1998-99, Child welfare series no. 25, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra.

Stevenson, O. (1998), Neglected Children: Issues and Dilemmas, Blackwell Science, Oxford.

Straus, M.A. (1979), "Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: the Conflicts Tactics (CT) Scales", Journal of Marriage and the Family , vol. 41, pp. 75-88.

Tomison, A.M. (1995), Spotlight on Child Neglect, Issues Paper no. 4, National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne.

Tomison, A.M. & Tucci, J. (1997), Emotional Abuse: The Hidden Form of Maltreatment, Issues Paper no. 8, National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne.

Rosie's Place, a community based sexual abuse counselling service for children, young people, and their non-offending family members, has attempted to demystify the counselling experience for abused or neglected young children (and their caregivers) by releasing the booklet, I Have a Place, written by Catherine Want, and illustrated by Jennifer Pitty.

Based upon children's responses in a series of focus groups run with children who have been Rosie's Place clients, who were asked to voice their concerns and fears about attending counselling, the booklet is intended to demystify the counselling process and to identify counsellors as people to whom children can safely confide their worries, problems or hurts.

I Have a Place is written for children in the language of children. "When children are hurt or not looked after, it can hurt really badly in lots of ways. It can hurt your feelings, your thoughts, you body and your family. No one should be hurt like this" (p. 4)

The booklet is interspersed with pages of activities intended to help children work through their concerns about attending counselling, the role of the counsellor, making disclosures, and the importance of having a parent/caregiver in support. For example, there is a page entitled "My bag of worries" which encourages children to note their concerns: "draw or write any worries you may have on this page".

The booklet includes: various questions a child may have when he or she is going to see a counsellor; a child's story about her/his visit to a counsellor, thus helping to normalise the counselling process for other children; and pointers or tips that may be useful for children who are about to attend counselling.

I Have a Place sends out a strong message to children that they are not alone, that counselling will provide them with a safe place from which to talk about their fears and hurts. As such, it is a valuable tool for all those working with, or counselling, children who have been abused or neglected. The booklet would also be useful in assisting parents new to the child counselling process to support their child.

I Have a Place is available from Rosie's Place Publications, PO Box 40, Rooty Hill, New South Wales 2776.

Ellen Fish, Clearinghouse Project Officer

Through the use of books in a therapeutic sense, it is hoped that children will be able to develop a personal sense of strength and the understanding that they are not the only person who has experienced a particular problem.

Ideas inherent in selected reading materials can have a therapeutic effect. Bibliotherapy, the use of books in a therapeutic sense, is the process of dynamic interaction between the personality of the reader and the literature.

Bibliotherapy aims to teach children to think positively and constructively, to encourage them to talk freely about their problems, to help them to analyse their attitudes and behaviours, to point out that there are multiple solutions to a problem, to stimulate them to find solutions, and to enable them to compare their problems with those of others.

The books described below can be a valuable resource for adults in assisting children to come to terms with a range of social problems.

There are common features in the books outlined in this list. Each one of these books focuses on a combination of issues dealing with secrecy, children's rights, personal safety, touching, personal responsibility or assertive behaviour. In relationship to child sexual abuse, one of the central dynamics is secrecy. It is important to respect secrets, but children need to learn that secrets about sexual abuse need to be told. Another issue relevant to abuse is children's rights, which in turn is paramount to the issue of child safety. All children have rights and choices, and children have a right to feel safe all of the time. Also described in many of these books is the need for children to be aware of the difference between good touching and unwanted touching, and to know how to assert themselves if they find themselves in an uncomfortable situation.

In these books, by identifying with a character who deals with a similar situation in a positive manner, it is hoped that children will be able to develop a personal sense of strength and counteract feelings of isolation and of being the only person who has experienced a particular problem.

Everyone has the right to feel safe wherever they are. This is the underlying concept of this book. Safety is about keeping safe and knowing what to do in an emergency. This book is part of a Safety Series that encourages the reader to think about safety in different situations.

The author provides basic safety strategies for children, from simple messages of being aware of what is around them and what to do when they are home alone, to how to protect themselves from, and how to deal with, bullies and how to travel safely on the street.

A section on sexual abuse discusses the rights children have over their bodies, how no one has the right to do anything to them that makes them feel uncomfortable, and that it is important for children to be able to talk to people if they feel unsafe.

Elliott, M. (1987) The Willow Street Kids: It’s Your Right to be Safe, Piccolo Books, London.

The aim of The Willow Street Kids is to make children less vulnerable to dangerous conditions. Its purpose is to help them to think about what to do in a variety of situations which they may confront — for example, when bullies, strangers or even people they know try to harm them. The book is written so that children may read it on their own or so that parents, teachers or other adults can read it to or with them.

The episodes in The Willow Street Kids are true stories told by children themselves. The adults in the book are supportive — they listen to and help the children, though it is made clear that sometimes it is hard to find an adult who will listen. However, the stories show that it is important for troubled children to keep trying to find someone to whom they can tell their problem.

This book, which is aimed at young people, has three purposes: to help people who have experienced violent crime learn to cope with past experiences and get on with their lives; to help all young people avoid becoming victims; and to encourage non violent ways of solving conflicts. Through explanations, stories and suggestions, the author looks at crime from many different perspectives.

The book begins with an examination of the transition from victim to survivor. The challenge facing every victim of a violent crime is to become a survivor. There is no one right way to become a survivor, but in this book the author outlines some principles — the basic principle being that it is important to tell what has happened, to take action and to work at overcoming the past. She then goes on to provide an overview of the different stages people may experience when they have been the victim of a violent crime such as anger, grief, and revenge, and discusses ways to be safe in an unsafe world. The book concludes with a section on how people can nurture themselves with activities such as regular exercise and stress management techniques.

Recognising abusive behaviour and not accepting it is essential for adolescents who are dating or planning to date. No matter what the situation, abusive behaviour is never appropriate. Whatever the reason, it is not right for people in a relationship to hurt each other with words, actions, physical force or sex. The message in this book is that abuse should not be tolerated, ignored or brushed aside.

As well as providing an overview of different types of abusive relationships, the author describes some of the myths surrounding abuse, why people stay in abusive relationships, how to avoid an abusive relationship, what to do if you are in an abusive relationship and what to do for a friend in an abusive relationship.

The book concludes with a section on programs being run in secondary schools with the purpose of teaching students strategies to prevent violence and encouraging them to take active roles in ending violence. The program aims to make adolescence aware of the role of power in relationships, to teach them ways of setting boundaries and to learn how to solve problems without resorting to violence.

Secrets are part of life, and while it is important to teach children to respect these confidences, they also need to know that secrets about sexual abuse ought to be revealed. In this book, children are shown the difference between a good secret and a bad secret, such as one about sexual abuse, and between good touching and sexually abusive touching.

The Secret of the Silver Horse instructs children that secrets about sexual abuse should not be kept. The story also teaches that if a child tells an adolescent or an adult about sexual abuse and that person does nothing, the child should be persistent and keep telling someone else until eventually someone does listen to them.

For parents, talking with their children to find out if they have been sexually abused is an important way to prevent sexual abuse. It is necessary for parents to feel comfortable talking about this subject or children may become aware of their parents' discomfort and may be reluctant to talk about it with them. Children need to be reassured that they will not get into trouble for telling someone that they have been abused, and they need to be believed if they report any abuse.

This book talks about the importance of privacy — ranging from a letter that a child may receive to the privacy of their body. The author provides sound judgment concerning distinguishing between good touching and unwanted touching, and how children need to learn to assert themselves and say when they feel uncomfortable about being touched by someone.

Children have a right to feel safe all the time. Unfortunately there are many children who do not experience this right as a reality in their lives. The authors have written this story to help children learn about their right to feel safe. It will also help them to ‘listen’ to the early warning signs which everyone gets when things are not as they should be, to deal with those situations themselves whenever they can, and to have a network of adults to whom they can turn for help if the situation is beyond their control.

This story is based on the Protective Behaviours Program, devised by Peg Flandreau West of Wisconsin, USA. It is intended for very young children, up to the ages of 5 to 6 years old. It 's companion, Zing and Zipp: The Troggs of Wongo-Wongo Wood, is intended for slightly older children, in the 4 to 9 year old age range.

All children have the right to feel safe all of the time. Unfortunately there are many children who do not experience this right as a reality in their lives. These stories were written to help children learn about their right to feel safe. They were also written to teach them about and to help them to ‘listen’ to the early warning signs which everyone gets when things are not as they should be, to deal with those situations themselves whenever they can, and to have a network of adults to whom they can turn for help if the situation is beyond their control.

The stories are based on the Protective Behaviours Program, devised by Peg Flandreau West of Wisconsin, USA. The underlying philosophy is that

there is nothing so awful that it cannot be talked about. The book is intended for children in the 4-9 year old age range. Nolly and Groogle: The Gillows of Crimpley Creek, written by the same authors, is intended for a younger audience, children 5 years and under.

This story was written by a class of children who have been involved in the Protective Behaviours Program, devised by Peg Flandreau West of Wisconsin (USA). The editors believe that the approach taken by the teacher and her class is an excellent way of reinforcing and applying the principles that the program teaches - that children have the right to feel safe. Children are able to practise problem solving skills, in a one-step removed, non threatening manner.

The story is published as an example of an approach that can be adapted to other well known stories and nursery rhymes. Activity pages have been included so that the reader can join in the learning and problem solving process, with the underlying message of the program being that, ‘we all have the right to feel safe all the time’.

Child sexual abuse is a very private crime, one that can and does take place repeatedly, substantially effecting the quality of life of a young person. The issue of children’s rights is paramount to the issue of child safety. If children are encouraged to ‘speak out’ and if they are taught that they do have rights and choices, then the community is one step closer to dealing with sexual abuse. The story After I Told My Secret looks at the issue of child sexual abuse through the child’s eyes. The author, herself a survivor of child sexual abuse, has written the story in a sensitive and understanding manner, explaining to children that they have the right to feel safe and to speak out if they don’t.

After I Told My Secret shows how a little boy feels after he has told someone that he has been sexually abused. It illustrates a range of thoughts and fears, and also provides examples of activities that aim to assist children to feel safe. It encourages children to realise that despite what has happened, they can be happy again.

Also in this series by the same author are the books I Had A Secret and My Body Belongs to Me.

My Body Belongs To Me looks at the issue of child sexual abuse through the child’s eyes. It is designed to promote awareness of the possibility of sexual abuse, and provides a framework in which adults and children can discuss this sensitive issue together. It encourages children to identify the ‘special’ parts of their bodies and to learn how to say ‘no’ to unwanted physical contact. By encouraging children to speak out and teaching them that they do have rights and choices, the community comes one step closer to understanding and dealing with child sexual abuse.

The book describes places where children can go to be safe and places that they should avoid.

Also in this series by the same author are the books I Had A Secret and After I Told My Secret.

The issue of children's rights is paramount to the issue of child safety. Children are defenceless against most adults, but are especially vulnerable to those authority figures closest to them, and upon whom they depend the most. Adults who sexually abuse children become adept at recognising the issues important to the child, and these issues become the focus of their manipulation. A child can be led to believe that sexual abuse is a normal expression of love, or they can be intimidated into not revealing abuse through threats or fear of losing the love of other family members.

The story, I Had A Secret, looks at the issue of child sexual abuse through the child's eyes. It tells how a little girl was able to trust her friend, mother and teacher with her secret which she had thought was too terrible to tell anyone. It deals with sexual abuse from the child's perspective and encourages children to understand that there are sympathetic and caring adults who will believe them.

Also in this series by the same author are the books, After I Told My Secret and My Body Belongs To Me.

What’s Wrong with Bottoms focuses on the subject of sexual abuse and is written specifically for children. Although it deals with a difficult topic, the overall tone is warm and supportive.

The book tells the story of a young boy whose Uncle Henry lives with him and his family. The boy and his uncle always had a close relationship, and the boy considered his uncle his special friend. However, one day Henry showed his nephew his genitals. Another day he wanted to fondle his nephew’s genitals, and he told his nephew that he shouldn’t tell anyone. Eventually the young boy told his mother who explained how wrong his uncle’s behaviour was.

The information provided on the problem of sexual abuse is accurate and helpful, giving appropriate role models for both children and adults.

Please Tell! is a simple book with a profoundly important message for children who have been sexually abused: namely that the abuse was not their fault. Written and illustrated by Jessie, herself a young survivor of sexual abuse, it tells young people what to do to get the help they need. Nine year old Jessie’s words and illustrations help other sexually abused children know that they are not alone, that it is OK to talk about their feelings, and that the abuse was not their fault.

One of the central dynamics of child sexual abuse is secrecy: children are told by their abusers not to tell. When secrecy exists, pain is borne alone. This isolation compounds the pain and confusion caused by abuse. Therapists, protection workers, teachers and parents will find that this book can be used to speak directly to children on several levels. First, for children who have been abused, this book offers affirmation for their disclosure, as well as the knowledge that they are not alone. On a second level, this book can be used by professionals who evaluate sexual abuse by giving permission for children to talk about the abuse. And on a third level, sexual abuse prevention trainers may find this book helpful to share as they teach children about sexual abuse and providing them with the courage to deal with it.

The Right Touch reaches far beyond the usual scope of a children’s picture book. It is a parenting book that introduces a very difficult topic — the sexual abuse of young children. This gentle, thoughtful story is meant to be read aloud by a parent or trusted carer to children aged between three and seven years old. It was developed as a tool for teaching skills to help prevent child sexual abuse. Children generally sense when things are not ‘right’ so it is important to encourage them to trust their feelings and seek help. This book validates a child’s innate warning system.

In the story, young Jimmy’s mother explains the difference between touches that are positive and touches that are secret, deceptive or forced. She tells him how to resist inappropriate touching, affirming that abuse is not the child’s fault.

The introduction provides valuable information about sexual abuse and guidance on what to do if a child experiences an abusive situation.

Sexual assault on children has been called 'the hidden crime' - hidden because many children, out of fear or shame, are reluctant to tell of their experiences; hidden because many parents, for their own reasons, fail to report instances of sexual abuse to the proper authorities; hidden because the damage often is not evident, although the psychological scars may remain for a lifetime.

Children are taught about the dangers of crossing the street, the risks of poisonous substances, the hazards of playing with matches. No one assumes that these lessons undermine the innocence of childhood. Children can similarly be taught some basic lessons that will help them deal with attempted sexual abuse. The sexual abuse of children cannot be totally prevented, but at least children can be armed with a rudimentary awareness of how to deal with an instance of potential assault.

This is a book for parents and children to read together. In simple language it aims to alert parents to the messages a child gives when being molested, and provides a collection of stories the child and parent can read together. These stories will help to develop both an awareness of potential dangers and an understanding that it is sometimes okay to say 'no' to an adult.

This book introduces the concerns surrounding child sexual abuse for young children under the age of six. It tells the story of Charlotte who is sexually abused by Tom, a family friend, and how he tells Charlotte, that this is their secret. He tells her that if she tells anyone about their ‘secret’, she will be in trouble. For a while Charlotte doesn’t tell anyone, but eventually, the secret is too big for her, and she becomes more and more upset. One day she tells her mother, and her mother reassures her that she did nothing wrong, but rather what Tom did was wrong.

Her mother explains to her the difference between good secrets and bad secrets, and how she does not need to be afraid to tell her parents anything.

My Book, My Body is a colouring book intended for use with children aged 4-12 years old. Its primary use will be by professionals, in direct one-to-one work with children who are thought or known to be abused. It could, however, also be used as part of a prevention program. There is considerable scope for children to colour in, draw or write in the book, and detailed guidelines and suggestions for use of the colouring book are provided with the book. The drawings deliberately feature children from different ethnic groups and children with a disability in the hope that that there will be a child with whom the reader can identify.

It is important that the book be given to the child and seen as belonging to that child. If all or part of the book is needed for evidence in a court case then the relevant parts should be photocopied or photographed.

This booklet was written by two young women. Charmaine, a Caribbean, described what being black and sexually abused meant for her. She wrote that she was abused by her father but felt she could not tell anyone because she loved him. She was also abused by her uncle, and was afraid that if she told anyone he would be physically violent towards her. The other author, Khadj, an Anglo-Asian, with a Bangladeshi father and an English mother, was raised in a culture completely different to Charmaine’s. She too was sexually abused by both her father and her uncle, felt herself to blame for the abuse, and was ashamed of the abuse. Although these women are of differing backgrounds, they share common experiences in racism.

This book is told in the language of these young women. They felt that their spelling mistakes should not be corrected, nor any commentary added, as they thought it would change the quality of their message. Their message is a powerful one, especially the need to understand different cultures and how helpful it is to talk about feelings with someone who can be trusted.

Mousie is a teddy who is called Mousie because he is so quiet. This book tells the story of something that happened to Mousie that frightened him. At first he kept quiet about his fear, and when he finally did tell someone, he was not believed. One day, however, he was able to tell someone who believed and protected him.

Mousie is intended to be read to children who may also have a secret they have been afraid to tell. It is the author’s own story, and as the author says, it is not only her story, ‘but the story of countless children who are seen but never heard. Mousies who become empty and frail as they are taught that their voices cannot be heard.... To those children who read this book — if you know how Mousie feels, please tell someone.’

The message of Secrets is in the words and pictures of the story, a story that tells of the sexual abuse of a child by a trusted adult.

The author herself was sexually abused as a child. She was a victim, and the story that she tells is one that she lived through for many years of her childhood. However, in this story, the victim becomes the survivor. The author hopes that her words and pictures will help others to find the courage to tell their stories and to survive. She has written this story for children and adolescents who may be going through the same thing that she experienced. She wrote it because she knew that although books have been written to warn children against strangers, it is often someone well known to them and in whom they trust who commits the abuse.

The author hopes that her words and pictures will help every victim to find the courage that he or she has inside — the courage to tell and to survive.

Did I Ever Tell You How Special You Are? was produced by the Queensland Centre for the Prevention of Child Abuse for children aged 4-10 years old. The underlying theme of the book is that a child’s body is special and that children have rights, the right to be happy, the right to feel good about themselves, and the right to say ‘no’ to anyone who they feel touches them in a way that feels wrong. The book also stresses the importance for children to tell someone they trust if they feel that anyone is treating them in a way which they don’t like.

Other books written by the author in the same series are Touches and Feelings, an introduction to understanding the difference between good, bad and confusing touches, and Knock Knock, Who’s There, a book which traces the feelings of a child who has been sexually abused.

Sometimes children may be embarrassed, scared or may not have the language to tell someone that they have been sexually abused. A child may subtly hint that something has happened or there may be a sudden change in the child’s behaviour. A number of books, games and personal safety programs are available that give children accurate prevention information and teach them self protective skills to reduce their vulnerability to abuse and exploitation.

This book traces the feelings of a child who has been sexually abused. It explores the possibility of sharing the experience with a sympathetic adult, and gives children permission to discuss the subject with someone they trust.

It is recommended reading for children aged four to ten years old.

Other books by the author in the same series are Touches and Feelings, an introduction to understanding the difference between good, bad and confusing touches and Did I Ever Tell You How Special You Are, a book to encourage children’s self esteem and confidence, and to help children listen to their feelings.

Child sexual abuse or assault is the exploitation of a child by an older person or adult for the sexual gratification or stimulation of that person. Most child sexual abuse occurs with someone the child knows and trusts. This book is designed to help parents teach their children to become aware of good and bad touches, and to talk to a trusted adult about bad or confusing touches. It also aims to encourage children to listen to their feelings.

Touches and Feelings was produced by the Queensland Centre for the Prevention of Child Abuse for children aged 4-10 years old. Other books by the author in the same series are Did I Ever Tell You How Special You Are?, a book to encourage children’s self esteem and confidence, and Knock Knock, Who’s There, a book which traces the feelings of a child who has been sexually abused.

Children need an abundance of warm physical attention to thrive. However, when children indicate that they do not want to be hugged or kissed, it is important to respect their reactions. In this way, they learn that being touched is their choice, not another’s, and that their bodies ‘belong to them’. Children who are taught very early that their bodies belong to them, and that they have the right to decline touch, are being taught that they are not powerless.

This book is meant to convey a few simple ideas in simple language: a child’s body is his or her own; a child has the right to decline touch — no matter how innocent; and there are certain parts of the body that ought to be touched only in certain circumstances. Keeping the message simple is important for very young children.

Helping children to talk about what feels good and what feels bad (such as being tickled against their will) leads to confidence in their own perceptions. Children also need to know that any touching which has to be kept secret is not good touching.

Child abduction by strangers or friends is constantly in the press. Warning children against these very real dangers is often a difficult task. Close to Home goes beyond teaching children to stay safe and not to talk to strangers. These short stories contain advice on those unsure situations where friends act strangely and strangers act friendly. They aim to teach children how to feel and stay safe. They ask the questions: What if a person tells you to do something that doesn’t feel safe? What do you do? What if someone wants you to get into a car and go somewhere where you’re not sure it’s okay to go? What do you say? Most likely, children know better than to go anywhere in a car with a stranger. But what if a stranger acts friendly, and makes you feel confused? What if someone you know and trust wants you to go somewhere you don’t want to go?

This book contains four short stories, about children who are not always sure what the right thing — the safe thing — is to do. This book aims to help children practice taking care of themselves by showing them all sorts of different situations with different kinds of people. It is about children learning to feel and be safe, at school, at home, or wherever they may be.

Sexual abuse of children is not a highly uncommon event. There are a vast number of children who are made uneasy at best, and deeply distressed at worst, by approaches from adults that they do not understand and with which they do not know how to cope. In recent years, there has been public discussion of this all too common childhood experience and provision to help those children to whom it happens. However, there is still not much literature aimed at the children themselves, and it is no protection to wrap them in ignorance. Children need to be warned, to be given permission to talk about disagreeable things if they happen to them. They need to be made to feel that they are not to blame if such things do happen to them.

No More Secrets for Me takes children by means of simple, direct and honest stories, through the sort of problems that may arise. The first story discusses child modesty and the need for adults to respect it. Other stories deal with experiences such as the adult who tries to get a child into a car, the young man who tries to share his nakedness with a young boy, and incest within a stepfamily.

The author has written this book to combine her expertise as a child therapist focusing on early childhood and child abuse issues and her interest in writing books for children. In the introduction to this book she notes that every year over a million children are abused in one way or another. Most of these children are alone with their feelings. Even if they receive professional help, there is a strong likelihood that their experience will not be shared with their peers. And even if the child is fortunate enough to have a friend to talk to, it is uncomfortable and frightening for another child to understand the abused child’s experience.

In Some Secrets are for Sharing, the reader is not only faced with the experience of a boy named Timmy who has been abused, but reads about the feelings, behaviours and struggles with which Timmy has to deal as an abused child. The reader will be able to identify with Timmy and gain sensitivity and understanding into a serious problem.

Sometimes when topics such as child abuse receive constant attention, the meaning and severity of the problem is actually diminished through desensitisation. Consequently, it is sometimes easy to forget that behind every incident of abuse there is a victim — a helpless child who may not know how to fight back, a child who does not know his rights, a child who may be violated and damaged. This book aims to show that for a child to share this sort of secret is the most important thing that he or she can do.

Sometimes Mummy and Daddy Fight tells a story of domestic violence in a family from the point of view of a young school aged boy and the effect it has on him. In this family, the boy’s father works in the city, while his mother works one day a week at the local library and spends most of her time looking after Gemma, their three year old daughter. For the most part, the family seems like a happy one, except that one day after his parents had an argument, his father pushed his wife, which resulted in her falling over and hurting herself. The children became very frightened, ran out of the room and hid in a toy cupboard until the arguing stopped

The young boy tried to reassure his sister that everything would be all right, and the next morning his parents acted as though nothing had happened. Although everything seemed okay, the young boy was sure that eventually, his parents would have another argument. What he could not understand was how come ‘...grownups who were supposed to know everything, didn’t even know that it was wrong to fight?’

Many women and children experience violence in the home on a regular basis. This book is intended to help children who have been exposed to family violence. It is meant to act as a framework for discussing feelings and challenging the idea of violence as a way of controlling other people.

Hear My Roar is the story of a family in which the father is abusive towards his wife and their child. The mother becomes concerned when she realises what effect the violence is having on the family. She asks for help from her family doctor and takes action towards ending the abuse. The story ends with the mother and her son leaving to visit a shelter as their first step in developing their new life together. The father begins to acknowledge his responsibility for the violence and is offered help for his problem.

Children learn by watching the behaviour of family members and friends. If they see people using violence 'successfully' as a way of solving problems, they might adopt that behaviour as well. Children need to learn that family violence is never appropriate behaviour and never a suitable way to resolve family conflicts. They need to learn that violence does not have to be tolerated and that action can be taken to stop it. It is important for children to know that the person committing the violence is responsible for their behaviour, and that the violence is not the child's fault. They need to learn how to protect themselves when faced with violence and how to find help when they need it. Above all, children need to know that they are safe and loved by their caregivers.

The author has worked with families in both urban and rural areas. He has conducted research in child developmental psychology on the effects of family violence. This work confirmed his experience that children who witness violence suffer many of the same problems as direct victims of abuse. He developed this book to provide a form of 'preventative medicine' aimed at breaking the cycle of violence.

Domestic abuse is a pattern of controlling behaviour. It can be physical, sexual, or emotional. Many people believe violence is a learned behaviour. If children see it in their family, they are more likely to continue it in their future relationships. Sixty percent of boys who witness violence in the home grow up to abuse their adult partners. Victims of domestic violence are also more likely to be victimised again than are victims of other types of crime. This behaviour is known as the 'cycle of violence', and the aim of this book is to help the reader recognise it and to learn how to break the cycle.

Never, No Matter What is a story for young children that focuses on a child whose mother chooses to leave an abusive family situation and goes with her child to a women’s shelter. The author focuses on the importance of understanding that in a situation where domestic violence occurs, it is not the fault of the person who is being abused; rather it is the responsibility of the abuser. Being violent is never an appropriate way to solve problems.

Also included with this book is a question and answer page for adults and children in which the author defines what a shelter is, why mothers and their children are there, what a counsellor is, and what happens to the father when he has behaved violently.

A Safe Place is a story about family violence, and the damaging effect that it has on children. In this story Emily’s parents often argue, and her father frequently hits her mother. Eventually Emily and her mother leave the family home and go to a place where they can feel safe. Emily has felt that the arguing at home was her fault, and that though ‘she had tried to be good … no matter how good she was the fighting didn’t stop.’ The most important thing is for Emily to feel safe and loved, and so Emily’s mother feels that the only choice she has is for her to leave the family home and take Emily with her.

Even though Emily loves both her father and her mother, there is still violence in their home. However, the violence is not her fault. Rather it is the person who commits the acts of violence who is responsible.

Susan Fooks is a librarian at the Australian Institute of Family Studies.

The following selections from new additions to the Clearinghouse collection over the last six months may be borrowed from the Australian Institute of Family Studies library, via the interlibrary loan system.

Aboriginal families

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women's Taskforce on Violence report, Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Women's Taskforce on Violence (Queensland), Brisbane, Qld, Department of Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Policy & Development, rev. ed., 2000.

Established in December 1998, the objectives of the Queensland Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women's Task Force on Violence were to identify the factors behind the escalation of violence in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities in Queensland and to provide advice on community-based strategies for prevention and intervention. The Task Force called for public submissions through regional and local newspapers on 30 January 1999. A literature review was also conducted. This report presents the findings and recommendations of the Task Force. Section 1 covers forms of violence, transgenerational trauma as cause and effect, and case studies; section 2 focuses on causes and contributing factors; section 3 is titled Rhetoric or reality? The extent of violence; and section 4 is titled Working for change. Discussion includes theoretical perspectives on violence and its causes; abuse of alcohol and other addictive substances; cultural and spiritual violence; socioeconomic disadvantage; neglect, abuse and violence against children; suicides, self-harm and other self-inflicted injuries; reporting rape and sexual assault; policies and services; education as empowerment; Indigenous health and well-being; families and security; the Indigenous experience of justice; land - spirit - culture - identity.

'Aboriginal child sexual abuse and support services', by D. Ford, in P. Dudgeon, D. Garvey & H. Pickett, eds., Working with Indigenous Australians: a handbook for psychologists, Perth, WA, Gunada Press, Curtin Indigenous Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology, 2000, pp.451-456.

The role of the Department of Family and Children's Services, WA in dealing with the issue of Aboriginal child sexual abuse is discussed in this paper which provides a case study of the Kimberley Child Sexual Abuse Group and outlines issues of: child sexual abuse in the Aboriginal community; the development of culturally appropriate responses; accessing mainstream services; and advice to psychologists.

'Aboriginal child sexual abuse treatment services', by N. Phillips, in P. Dudgeon, D. Garvey & H. Pickett, eds., Working with Indigenous Australians: a handbook for psychologists, Perth, WA, Gunada Press, Curtin Indigenous Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology, 2000, pp.457-464.

The role of the Department of Family and Children's Services, WA in dealing with the issue of Aboriginal child sexual abuse is discussed in this paper which provides a case study of the Kimberley Child Sexual Abuse Group and outlines issues of: child sexual abuse in the Aboriginal community; the development of culturally appropriate responses; accessing mainstream services; and advice to psychologists.

'Child sexual abuse', by D. Bessarab, in P. Dudgeon, D. Garvey & H. Pickett, eds., Working with Indigenous Australians: a handbook for psychologists, Perth, WA, Gunada Press, Curtin Indigenous Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology, 2000, pp.447-450.

Ways of working with an Aboriginal child or young people who has been sexually abuse, are identified in this paper which also discusses how practitioners can work with the families and outlines the rationale behind the problem solving Protective Behaviours program.

Community consultation in an anti-social environment: part one, by R. Bohill & G. Douglas, Indigenous Law Bulletin, vol.5, no.2, Sept 2000, pp.7-9.

In part one of this two part article, the authors argue that the requirement of the Children (Protection and Parental Responsibility) Act 1997 (NSW) to consult with young people and Indigenous communities is crucial both to legitimating the Act as a form of social control and to empowering community members in exercising some control over the implementation of the Act. On the one hand, consultation may be used to coerce consent to and sanction the perpetuation of assimilationist policies of child removal. On the other, effective consultation may produce positive social change. The authors suggest that which outcome prevails will depend on the ideas and practices of consultation, decision-making and proper social relations adopted by governmental agencies. Discussion includes the objectives of the Act, and outcomes of local crime prevention plans.

Community consultation in an anti-social environment: part two, by G. Douglas & R. Bohill, Indigenous Law Bulletin, vol.5, no.3, Oct 2000, pp.8-12.

This article continues the discussion of the critical nature of consultation with indigenous communities begun in Part One (Indigenous Law Bulletin vol.5 no.2 Sept 2000). Ensuring that effective and appropriate consultation has been undertaken is an integral process of any new legislative or policy framework. Part One questioned the values underpinning the consultative processes directed at improving social harmony under the Child (Protection and Parental Responsibility) Act 1997 (NSW). Part Two addresses the way ancestral social organisation may assume a vital role in ensuring communities are informed and are active participants in the process of consultation.

'From assimilation to self determination: issues and priorities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and families', by M. Cadd, in Just policy, sound research and joint action: selected papers from the 2000 ACOSS Congress, Strawberry Hills, NSW, Australian Council of Social Service, 2001.

Keys tasks and ideas on how community organisations can contribute to the Aboriginal reconciliation process are identified in this paper which discusses: background information on the Secretariat National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care (SNAICC); information on the development of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children's services; an overview of the issues relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and families; child protection and welfare; impact of the Indigenous population's age structure on the care and protection system; juvenile justice and mandatory sentencing legislation in the NT and WA; diminished federal government support for children's and youth advocacy organisations; developments in early childhood education and access to culturally appropriate child care and preschool services; and SNAICC's policy agenda.

Indigenous families and the welfare system: two community case studies, edited by D.E. Smith, Canberra, ACT, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, Australian National University, 2000.

This monograph presents data from the first year of a longitudinal community based research project conducted by the Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research at the Australian National University and was commissioned and partly funded by the Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services. The community based quantitative and qualitative research identifies a range of factors influencing delivery of and access to welfare transfers to Indigenous families for the care of their children, focusing on Parenting Payment and Family Allowances. The implications of these factors for welfare policy and service delivery are highlighted at the community, regional and national levels. Two community case studies, of Kuranda, Qld and Yuendumu, Northern Territory, are presented and compared, covering issues of: welfare economy; household structure and composition; mobility and its impact; parents, carers and child care arrangements; child health and nutrition; maintenance money and welfare income; Welfare Service Transaction Centre; the current Carer's Statement Trial; a Kids' Care Card; the cost of Centrelink service delivery; and service delivery issues.

Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families: Commonwealth, State and Territory Government responses to the recommendations of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission report 'Bringing them Home', by the Ministerial Council for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Affairs (Australia), Darwin, NT, Ministerial Council for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Affairs, 2000.

This document presents the 1998-9 Ministerial Council for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs monitoring report on jurisdictional responses to the recommendations of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission report 'Bringing them Home'. It also brings together responses to the recommendations from each individual jurisdiction, published at various times since 1997. Specifically, the report provides information on the activities of jurisdictions in relation to parliamentary statements; recording testimonies; compensation; promoting family reunion; records issues; culture and language maintenance; health care; parenting and family well being programs; education; and issues of contemporary separation.

The stolen generation: psychological effects of the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families and culture, by B.A. Stevens & V. Bushell, Ethos, no.178, Jun 2000, pp.17-19.

In 1997 the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families: Bringing Them Home documented the circumstances and effects of 150 years of systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families and community and into missions, white adoptive families and foster homes. This article discusses the psychological effects of this removal of children from their families and culture. Risk factors such as substance abuse, criminal behaviour, suicide, abuse and domestic violence are identified and a case study is presented of an Aboriginal man who spent his childhood in institutional care.

Adolescent mothers

Depression, self-esteem, loneliness and social support among adolescent mothers participating in the New Parents Project, by D.B. Hudson, S.M. Elek & C. Campbell-Grossman, Adolescence, vol.35, no.139, Fall 2000, pp.445-453.

This study examined levels of depression, self-esteem, loneliness and social support among a group of adolescent mothers who were participating in the New Parents Project. Fifty-three percent of the participants recorded high rates of depression. A significant relationship was found between depression and self-esteem. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Adolescents

Adolescent physical abuse: age at time of abuse and adolescent perception of family functioning, by K. Pelcovitz, S.J. Kaplan & A. Ellenberg, Journal of Family Violence, vol.15, no.4, Dec 2000, pp.375-389.

This study investigated the link between physical abuse and family functioning. Adolescents who had been abused viewed their families as less adaptable, less cohesive and less balanced than nonabused adolescents.

Understanding dysfunctional and functional family behaviors for the at-risk adolescent, by D. Martin & M. Martin, Adolescence, vol.35, no.140, Winter 2000, pp.785-792.

This article discusses the characteristics of both healthy and maladaptive families. It also examines how an understanding of family functioning can help therapists understand adolescent development and how dysfunctional adolescents impact on other family members.

Adoption & foster care

Adoption: a study of post-war child removal in New South Wales, by C. Jones, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society ,vol.86, no.1, Jun 2000, pp.51-64.

After the end of the Second World War, it was believed that the institutionalisation of ex nuptial children in orphanages, foster care and adopted families was of benefit to both the children and the community. This article looks at the adoption of ex nuptial children as a means of protecting children from their single mothers, who were often thought to be unfit parents, and also as a means of punishing their mothers. With the advent of the single mothers' supporting pension and changing society attitudes where the single mother was no longer seen as a threat to the nuclear family or as incapable of caring for her children, the number of adoptions decreased.

Children in care, by S. Ash, Impact, Mar 2001, p. 12.

Emergency foster care is a significant entry point for children into the welfare system. As such it provides early warning signs for issues which will affect the welfare of children in the future. The author suggests that moves to extend mutual obligation requirements to sole parents will have a long term effect on the protection of vulnerable children.

The discussant's response, by S. Wise, Children Australia, vol.25, no.4, 2000, pp.23-25.

As discussant for the symposium on permanency planning held at the 7th national conference of the Australian Institute of Family Studies in Sydney in July 2000, the author provides a response to the contributors' points of view by building on their perspectives surrounding the extent to which a system of permanency planning would unconditionally lead to improvements in child welfare. Her discussion focuses on the confusion surrounding a number of principles and concepts underpinning the practice of permanency planning and the absence of theory or research to provide the necessary guidance or adequate definition related to these concepts. The author outlines the major steps in implementing a system of permanency planning and associated problems.

Evaluation of a preventive intervention for maltreated infants and toddlers in foster care, by C.H. Zeanah, J.A. Larrieu & S.S. Heller, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, vol.40, no.2, Feb 2001, 214-221.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a comprehensive preventive intervention that was designed to improve outcomes for maltreated infants and toddlers who were in foster care. It found that this intervention substantially reduced the rates of repeated maltreatment but did not effect the length of time spent in care.

Inquiry into the practice and provision of substitute care in NSW: new directions - from substitute to support care: final inquiry report, New South Wales, Community Services Commission, Strawberry Hills, NSW, Community Services Commission, 2000.

The Community Services Commission acts as a catalyst for improving the culture, quality and reputation of community services in NSW and empowering the consumers of these services. As such it has a special interest in the circumstances of those children and young people who cannot live with their natural families and who require external services and support to meet their care. This publication is a report on the Inquiry into the practice and provision of substitute care in New South Wales, a report affecting the care of the most vulnerable children and young people in the community. The aim of the Inquiry has been to assess, at a system level, whether the current practice and provision of substitute care meet the needs of children and young people in care, and to identify directions for improving the system. The key observations of the Inquiry are that currently the substitute care system in NSW lacks sufficient capacity to focus on the needs of children and young people in care, and is unable to ensure adequate outcomes for these children and young people. What is needed is a commitment at all levels of the system to placing the safety, needs and aspirations of children and young people at the centre of the care system.

Introducing a symposium on permanency planning, by S. Wise, Children Australia, vol.25, no.4, 2000, pp.4-6.

A symposium on permanency planning (permanent family placement for children unable to live with their birth families) was held at the seventh national conference of the Australian Institute of Family Studies in Sydney in July 2000. The objective was to discuss the use of permanency planning as a framework for decision making in child welfare. In particular the symposium focused on issues such as: the amount of work that should be undertaken to help birth families fulfil their parenting roles; how to determine the likelihood of reunification; and the disruption rates for permanent placement. This article provides an introduction and overview to the symposium and a discussion of the meaning of permanency planning.

New directions for NSW care system, by C. Flyn, Rights Now! Mar 2001, p.17.

A brief overview is provided of the NSW Community Services Commission's report on the inquiry into the state's substitute care. Titled 'New directions - from substitute to supported care', the report clearly demonstrates that unless there is concerted, sustained and immediate action to address insufficient capacity in the NSW substitute care system, it will remain dysfunctional and unable to meet even the most basic needs of the children and young people who enter its care.

Preventive intervention for maltreated preschool children: impact on children's behavior, neuroendocrine activity and foster parent functioning, by P.A. Fisher, M.R. Gunnar & P. Chamberlain, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, vol.39, no.11, Nov 2000, pp.1356-1364.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Early Intervention Foster Care (EIFC) program as a preventive intervention designed to reduce risk in preschool foster children. The study examined: 1) parenting strategies used by program foster parents; 2) the impact of the intervention on the initial adjustment to a new foster home; and 3) children's functioning in terms of biological indicators. The authors conclude that the research described in this article may be considered only as the first step in the prevention research process. Several critical stages of research need to be conducted before it will be appropriate to incorporate this approach into public policy discussions.

Rights and realities in the permanency debate, by H. Bath, Children Australia, vol.25, no.4, 2000, pp.13-17.

This paper from the symposium on permanency planning held at the 7th National Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference focuses on the tension involved in any decision making process in child welfare where competing rights and realities need to be juggled. The concept of permanence with regard to child welfare is one of many principles that influence contemporary practice; others include normalisation, localisation, deinstitutionalisation, least restrictive or detrimental alternative, and family preservation. The competing principles are laudable in their own right when applied thoughtfully, suggests the author, but they may actually be inimical to the achievement of permanence. He reviews some of the legal and ethical impediments to promoting permanence; discusses some social and 'market' realities influencing out-of-home care practice; and reviews some of the relevant data and the implications of policy shift for indigenous children. Developmental realities include the role of identity issues in placement breakdown and the practice complications introduced by the arbitrary termination of parental rights where best practice suggests 'open adoption' and inclusive foster parenting. Ultimately, concludes the author, the right to permanence needs to be balanced against competing rights to a secure identity and open access.

Support, timelines and hard decisions, by C. O'Neill, Children Australia,vol.25, no.4, 2000, pp.7-10.

A symposium on permanency planning was held at the seventh national conference of the Australian Institute of Family Studies in Sydney in July 2000. This paper from the symposium covers the following themes which are related to termination of parental rights and the movement of children from one family to another on the grounds of protecting them from abuse or neglect: whether birth parents are supported sufficiently to keep their children; how and when decisions should be made to remove children from their birth families; and the relationship between birth and permanent families. Overseas and Australian research, legislation and practice are examined, and the question of whether termination of parental rights is appropriate within the current Australian context is then looked at in the light of this literature.

What the research tells us: permanency planning, adoption and foster care, by J. Cashmore, Children Australia, vol.25, no.4, 2000, pp.17-22.

This is a paper from the symposium on permanency planning held at the Australian Institute of Family Studies' 7th National Conference, July 2000. It reviews research related to factors affecting psychosocial outcomes and placement stability in out of home care, the results of which reinforce the view of the need for a variety of placement options for children. The author traces the development of the permanency planning movement; discusses outcome measures; reviews factors affecting outcomes and stability in care; explores children's and young people's views; discusses barriers to permanency and implications for policy and practice.

Art

Pictures in the classroom: can teachers and mental health professionals identify maltreated children's drawings?, by M. Veltman & K.D. Browne, Child Abuse Review, vol.9, no.5, Sep-Oct 2000, pp.328-336.

This aim of this paper is to investigate whether teachers and mental health professionals are able to consistently identify drawings produced by maltreated children. The results show that Kinetic Family Drawings (KFD) are a more reliable technique when it is known that maltreatment is present. However, it should not be used to identify maltreatment.

At risk children

Childhood physical abuse, early social support and risk for maltreatment: current social support as a mediator of risk for child physical abuse, by J.L. Crouch, J.S. Milner & C. Thomsen, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol.25, no.1, Jan 2001, pp.93-107.

This study examined the links between childhood physical abuse, perceived early social support, current social support and the risk of physically abusing your own children as an adult. Results showed that childhood physical abuse was directly related to child physical abuse risk. Early social support was found to be directly related to adult perceptions of social support and adult perceptions of such support were inversely associated with child physical abuse risk. However, childhood physical abuse does not appear to impact on perceptions of social support in adulthood. The study concludes that more research is needed to identify the additional factors which may explain the association between childhood physical abuse and the increased risk of child physical abuse in adulthood.

Parental features and quality of life in the decision to remove children at risk from home, by B.D. Arad, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol.25, no.1, Jan 2001, pp.47-64.

This study examines the decisions made by child protection workers to remove children at risk from their home. The study examined the association between the decision to remove a child and 1) parental features (i.e. cooperation with the worker, relationship with the child, addiction and cleanliness) and 2) the quality of life that the parents could offer the child (i.e. poverty, criminality, psychological problems and cognitive impairment).

The role of observation in the assessment of child neglect, by K. Tanner & D. Turney, Child Abuse Review, vol.9, no.5, Sep-Oct 2000, pp.337-348.

This paper defines child neglect as an absence of care. This is caused by a breakdown in the relationship between the primary carer and the child. The authors note that the discussion of neglect often leads to mother blaming. They suggest that intentional, structured observation may be a useful tool in accurately assessing the complexities of the mother-child relationship.

Best practice

What works in child welfare, by M.P. Kluger, P.A. Curtis & G. Alexander, Washington DC, CWLA Press, c2000.

This book presents information on research in the child welfare area that concentrates on what works, and how and why it works. The book is divided into six main sections: family preservation and family support services; child protective services; out-of-home care; adoption; child care; and adolescent services.

Child abuse prevention

Child abuse and neglect: part II - practical intervention and prevention activities, by M. James, Canberra, ACT, Australian Institute of Criminology, 2000.

Prevention of child abuse and neglect involves taking action to stop abuse before it occurs, or intervening after the abuse has occurred to stop the abuse continuing and to help those who have been abused. This article continues Trends and Issues paper no.146, Child abuse and neglect: part 1 - redefining the issues, and focuses on practical intervention and prevention activities. It describes a number of programs that have been shown to be effective. They range from parenting and anger management programs to multifaceted in-house services, and include: Colorado rethink parenting and anger management program; Boston community intervention to reduce the risk of child abuse; Child abuse prevention unit in health classes in schools in Birmingham, Alabama; Don't shake the baby program from Ohio; Elmira prenatal / early infancy project; Project 12-ways from Illinois; and Family CARE project from Australia.

'Don't Shake the Baby': towards a prevention strategy, by J. Shepherd & A. Sampson,The British Journal of Social Work, vol.30, no.6, Dec 2000, pp.721-735.

This paper reports the findings of a research study which was designed to inform a 'Don't Shake the Baby' campaign. Research findings are discussed and recommendations for a prevention programme are suggested.

Handbook for child protection practice, by D. DePanfilis & H. Dubowitz, Thousand Oaks, Calif., London, Sage Publications, c2000.

This book has been compiled for professionals working in the area of child protection. It has been structured to follow the course of a child protection case from the time of the initial report, through the various pathways in the child protection system, to the final outcome. It includes sections on: best-practice principles for responding to child abuse reports; engaging children and other family members in the intervention; developing cross-cultural practice competencies; assessing risk, evaluating safety and conducting family assessments; defining outcomes and planning interventions; evaluating risk reduction; and making permanency decisions. It also discusses the unique legal, medical, ethical and other practice issues that are involved in the child protection field.

Preventing child abuse and neglect: findings from an Australian audit of prevention programs, by A.M.Tomison & L. Poole, Melbourne, Vic, Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2000.

In 1999, the National Child Protection Clearinghouse, with the support of the National Council for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, and the State and Territory government departments, undertook a National Audit of Child Abuse Prevention Programs operating across Australia. The National Audit is part of a strategy to reduce the incidence of child abuse and neglect throughout Australia and was funded by the Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services, through the National Clearinghouse. The intention was to provide an overview of child abuse prevention initiatives currently being undertaken nationally, to identify trends and any gaps in service provision, to identify programs from which service providers can learn, and thus avoid 'reinventing the wheel' with regard to program development, and to generate discussion of future directions in child abuse prevention. In this report an analysis of the results of the Audit is presented. Specifically, within a context of current government policies, the range and scope of child abuse prevention programs currently operating in Australia are identified and described, as are the types of groups or organisations involved in operating these programs. Finally, a number of trends in service provision are highlighted, with reference to previous Clearinghouse audits, and a number of recommendations are made with regard to future directions in the development of prevention programs.

Prevention pays : the costs of not preventing child abuse and neglect, Fairfax, VA, Caliber Associates, [2001?].

The purpose of this paper is twofold: to promote a greater understanding of what is already known about the financial costs of child maltreatment; and to encourage the continued examination and comparison of these costs with the benefits of prevention. The cost elements, both direct and indirect, that make up the total cost of child maltreatment are discussed. This is followed by a brief overview of the findings from selected studies, (Elmira, New York; Michigan Children's Trust Fund; Colorado Children's Trust Fund; and Allegheny County, Pennsylvania), that have conducted cost-benefit and cost-of-failure analyses. The paper concludes that in the long-term prevention does pay.

Child abuse reporting

Reporting abuse: personal and professional dilemmas for teachers, by R. Davis, Children Newsletter, no.36, Dec 2000, pp.20-21.

If reporting child abuse procedures is part of a process that upholds the best interests of the child as a central concern, then what are the conditions under which these procedures are determined and how are they maintained? This article looks at answering this question by looking at some of the history surrounding legal and moral obligations of reporting abuse both in New Zealand and internationally. In particular, the author examines personal and professional dilemmas for teachers.

Reporting child abuse: pediatricians' experiences with the child protection system, by A.P. Vulliamy & R. Sullivan, Child Abuse & Neglect. vol.24, no.11, Nov 2000, pp.1461-1470.

This study explores pediatricians' reluctance to report suspected cases of child abuse to child protection services. The study found that reluctance to report is an international problem. The reasons for noncompliance are discussed and theories that might help inform future research in this area are examined.

Child abuse reporting: teachers' perceived deterrents, by M.C. Kenny, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol.25, no.1, Jan 2001, 81-92.

This study surveyed 197 teachers to determine: 1) the number of child abuse reports made by teachers; 2) their knowledge of child abuse laws and reporting procedures; and 3) their perceived deterrents in reporting suspected abuse. Most of the teachers had never made a report of suspected child abuse, however, 11% reported suspecting abuse and failing to report. The most common reasons for not reporting were: fear of making an inaccurate or false report; feeling that families are not helped by the child protection system; and there being no physical signs of abuse. In conclusion it was found that teachers need more training in child abuse signs, symptoms and reporting procedures.

Child deaths

1999-2000 report, New South Wales. Child Death Review Team, Surry Hills, NSW, NSW Commission for Children & Young People, 2000.

The overall purpose of the Child Death Review Team is to prevent or reduce child deaths in New South Wales. This publication provides information about the demographic and social characteristics of children and young people in NSW, and reflects on social policy regarding children and young people. A register is maintained of all child deaths occurring in NSW, with deaths classified according to cause of death, demographic criteria, and other factors with a view to understanding causes of child deaths and preventing these fatalities. This publication presents statistics on child fatalities for 1999 - 2000, and also discusses trends in child fatalities for the period 1996 - 1999.

Annual report of inquiries into child deaths: protection and care 2000, Victoria, Department of Human Services, Victorian Child Death Review Committee, Melbourne, Vic, Victorian Child Death Review Committee, Department of Human Services, 2000.

The Victorian Child Death Review Committee reviews investigative reports of all deaths of children who have died while they were current clients, or within three months of case closure, of Child Protection Services. The Committee provides advice to the Minister on measures that will minimise the risk of child deaths and contribute to a more broadly targeted strategy aimed at reducing the unacceptably high rates of abuse and neglect in the community. This annual report shows that during 1999, seventeen deaths occurred. The report summarises findings about these cases; identifies emerging themes; describes the achievements by the Committee, and continuing work; and discusses public perceptions, noting that public debate is less often characterised by emotive headlines than was the case when the Committee first met in May 1996. Rather, reporting is being made more often with an acute understanding of the complex issues that confront those workers responsible for protecting the children and young people of Victoria.

Out of sight : NSPCC report on child deaths from abuse, 1973-2000, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 2nd ed., London, NSPCC, 2001.

The aim of this report is to bring to public attention, and help prevent, the deaths of children from abuse and neglect. In order to achieve this aim a better understanding of the circumstances in which these deaths occur is needed. This report presents papers and recommendations on how this may be achieved.

Reporting child deaths : the role of the media, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, London, NSPCC, 2001.

This report was commissioned because the NSPCC felt that for a number of reasons the deaths of children following child abuse or neglect are kept out of sight. It is important to have an adequately informed debate about child killing. The media has an important role to play in informing the general public and setting the climate of public debate on child deaths caused by abuse or neglect. The report recommends that a media code of practice for reporting child deaths from abuse or neglect be developed.

Child sexual abuse

Children's and primary caretakers' perceptions of the sexual abuse investigation process: a New Zealand example, by E. Davies, F. Seymour & J. Read, Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, vol.9, no.2, 2000, pp.41-56.

There has been an increased interest in the investigation and criminal justice processes surrounding child sexual abuse, as well as a growing literature on the effects on children of criminal justice processes, particularly related to their giving evidence in court. The few studies that have investigated the effects on children of the early stages of the investigation process indicate that children's experiences depend on many factors, including their treatment by staff, the nature of the abuse, and the support given by families. This study investigated children's and primary carers' perceptions of the investigation processes, focusing on their perceptions of the early stages of the process, in particular, social work intervention, early police responses, the evidential video units, medical examinations, access to counselling agencies, and the way these interventions linked together in the first weeks after disclosure.

The extent and nature of known cases of institutional child sexual abuse, by B. Gallagher, The British Journal of Social Work, vol.30, no.6, Dec 2000, pp.795-817.

This paper presents the findings of a study into cases of reported institutional child sexual abuse. While there were similarities between institutional abuse and intrafamilial abuse there were also important differences, such as the proportion of male victims and the use of techniques of targeting and entrapment. The abuse occurred in a wide variety of settings and was perpetrated by a range of occupational groups. In order to ensure the protection of all children it is necessary to direct policy and practice measures to prevent abuse towards a wider range of institutions.

Relationship of childhood sexual abuse and eating disturbance in children, by S.A. Wonderlich, R.D. Crosby & J.E. Mitchell, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, vol.39, no.10, Oct 2000, pp.1277-1283.

This research tests the hypothesis that childhood sexual abuse will increase the risk of eating disturbance in children. The results revealed that the abused children were at greater risk of eating disturbance with higher levels of weight dissatisfaction and purging and dieting behavior.

Ritual, and child sexual abuse, but not ritual child sexual abuse, by B. Gallagher, Child Abuse Review, vol.9, no.5, Sep-Oct 2000, pp.321-327.

Some of the controversy surrounding ritual (satanic) child sexual abuse concerns the way in which child protection services diagnose the cases. This paper presents two case studies of controversial clinical assessments. In both of these cases there was evidence of both child sexual abuse and' ritual', but the agencies decided that they occurred independently of one another and were not indicative of ritual child sexual abuse. The paper calls for the need for a broader and more balanced debate in regard to these issues and the way in which these two cases were handled in particular.

Child witnesses

Cross examination and the child witness, by R. Zajac, Childrenz Issues, vol.5, no.1, 2001, pp.33-38.

Some of the common cross-examination techniques used by lawyers are detailed, and their impact on children, young persons and their families are then explored. Given the complexity and seriousness of child sexual abuse charges, as well as the fact that a case may come down to the word of a child against that of an adult, the reliability of children as witnesses and the best way to obtain their statements has become a matter of great concern. Problems relating to cross examination and children are discussed, including suggestibility, linguistic competence, strength of memory, interview environment, and children's accuracy. It is noted that, despite the potential for cross-examination to lead to inaccuracies in children's testimony, cross-examination has not been explicity addressed by legal reform. It is also stated that cross-examination contravenes the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, by being too complex and intimidating a process, not giving the child their right to make their opinions heard, and possibly by leaving those guilty free to re-abuse. Some possible solutions to the problem of cross-examination are outlined.

Children's contact services

Paying attention to our children, by L. Anthony, Child Abuse Prevention: National Child Protection Clearinghouse Newsletter, vol.8, no.2, Summer 2000, pp.1-4.

The Government has announced a number of new children's contact services which will offer a neutral location for changeovers between resident and non resident parents and for supervised contact visits. The purpose is to provide separated parents with the skills and support they need to deal reasonably with each other for the benefit of their children. This article focuses on the strategies necessary to ensure children are receiving the attention they deserve: early intervention and prevention of problems; working with the community to provide better services and support for parents; holistic responses to problems; and using existing activities to build better approaches. Part of the Government's commitment to help families build resilience and strength is the Stronger Families and Communities Strategy which is described in this article.

Children's wishes

Discovering what children think: connections between research and practice, by N. Thomas & C. O'Kane, The British Journal of Social Work, vol.30, no.6, Dec 2000, pp.819-835.

This paper describes a research study which examined children's involvement in the decision making process when they are looked after by local authorities. The relationship between the methods used in the research and those used in social work practice are examined. The paper argues that in both research and practice a commitment to involving children in the decision making process requires the use of methods of communication that enable children to demonstrate their competence and articulate their wishes.

Community participation

Community coalitions: a longitudinal study of a statewide model, by G.L. Stevens & K.A. Lodl, Family Science Review, vol.13, no.3&4, Dec 2000, pp.176-181.

This article highlights a 10-year model coalition-building project, KIDS' TEAM, which was designed to bring existing statewide programs addressing youth-at-risk issues into a network to model and nurture local community coalition development. This program provides a model that can be adapted and replicated by other coalition building projects.

Courts

Childrens care and protection: reforms to care matters in the Children's Court, by D. De Fina, Law Society Journal, vol.38, no.10, Nov 2000, pp.29-30.

The Children and Young Persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998 (NSW) was passed along with accompanying legislation that amends the Children's Court Act 1987. Some of the reforms to care and protection law and to the structure of the Children's Court that are included in the new legislation are briefly reviewed in this article. These include: emphasis on early intervention and alternative dispute resolution; new grounds for bringing court proceedings and new standard of proof; new final care orders available to court; new interim applications; new Children's Court Clinic; new structure of parental responsibility for children in substitute care; and a requirement that all applications for final care orders go to a preliminary conference.

Jurisdictional overlaps between the Family Division of the Children's Court of Victoria and the Family Court of Australia, by B. Fehlberg & F. Kelly, Australian Journal of Family Law, vol.14, no.3, Nov 2000, pp.211-233.

In this article, the authors present and discuss preliminary findings drawn from an on-going project being conducted in Victoria on jurisdictional overlaps in the area of child protection. In essence, the research so far found that cases are frequently transferred from the children's court to the family court; that there is little co-ordination or communication between the courts or between the courts and the Victorian Department of Human Services; and that although the cases where jurisdictional overlaps cause serious problems for children and families may be few in number they are cases which are made substantially more complex by their movement between two jurisdictions.

Psychiatrists and psychologists in the Family Court process, by A. Nicholson, Psychiatry, Psychology & Law, vol.7, no.1, 2000, pp.1-8.

The role of psychiatry and psychology in relation to family law is a vital one. In this article the author discusses current developments in Australian family law which affect the role of psychiatrists and psychologists in Family Court proceedings. He looks at family law reform, the Australian Law Reform Commission review of the federal civil justice system, family violence, litigants in person, interim applications concerning children, program initiatives and better management of child abuse cases. He concludes by providing observations about how mental health practitioners' expertise can best assist the Court.

The role of the children's court in child protection, by J. Coate, Rights Now! Mar 2001, pp.18-19.

The Children's Court as an institution of judicial decision making does not become involved in the child protection system until the child protection authority decides to invoke its jurisdiction. Neither does the Court have an investigative arm. It is the child protection authority (in Victoria, the Department of Human Services) which receives the notification of child abuse. The author describes the role of DHS, investigative procedures, bringing the case before the Court by initiating a Protection Application, and decision making in the Court for contested matters. She notes that the recently introduced Victorian Children and Young Persons (Appointment of President) Bill includes amendments which establish the Children's Court as an independent court, no longer a division of the Magistrate's Court, providing a specialised court catering for children and young people in both the criminal and family jurisdictions.

Cross cultural differences

Child abuse: a global view, edited by B.M. Schwartz-Kenney, M. McCauley & M.A. Epstein, Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 2001.

Although child abuse and neglect is a tragic social problem affecting the lives of many individuals worldwide, the way it is defined, prevented and treated differs from country to country. This international survey allows readers to identify the differences and similarities that exist among a variety of cultures when it comes to defining and preventing the problem. Scholars in the field have provided qualitative and quantitative data on the many issues surrounding this universal problem in 16 different countries chosen to represent all regions of the world. Each chapter addresses one country and explores the ways in which it approaches the problem, including: the history of child abuse; how child abuse is defined; the prevalence of abuse; child protection and legal actions taken when abuse is suspected; remedial services available for families and abused children; legal innovations available for child witnesses/ victims of abuse; legislative reforms; legal ramifications for offenders; and preventative measures. Cross cultural comparisons can help identify how each country's historical perspective and definition of child abuse and neglect determines how each society identifies, prevents and treats the issue, why the problem persists, and what might be done to prevent it worldwide. The following is a list of the countries examined: Australia; Canada; England; India; Ireland; Israel; Japan; Kenya; Malaysia; Mexico; Norway; Romania; Russia; Spain; Sri Lanka and USA. The chapter on Australia by Suzanne E and James Hatty is indexed separately.

Multicultural men and family relationships services: challenges and successes, by S. Bhattacharjee, Family Services Australia Newsletter, no.23, Dec 2000, pp.38-43.

The Multicultural Men and Family Relationship Services pilot program, developed by UnitingCare Burnside, Cabramatta Family Centre to improve culturally and linguistically diverse background men's relationship skills, education and family relationships, is described in this paper. Structural and cultural barriers are outlined and service activities and strategies to prevent child abuse, domestic violence and family breakdown for the target group of Vietnamese, Khmer and Laotian men are described.

Reducing risk for children in changing cultural contexts: recommendations for intervention and training, by D. Roer-Strier, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol.25, no.2, Feb 2001, pp.231-248.

This paper suggests guidelines for both parents and professionals for the prevention and reduction of risk associated with cultural differences, conflicts and misinterpretations. The paper presents a framework for a five step intervention plan to be used with parents. It also recommends multicultural training for professionals.

Valuing the field : child welfare in an international context, by M. Callahan, S. Hessle & S. Strega, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2000.

This book provides examples of best practice in child welfare across an international perspective. Organisational structures and policies to support best practice are discussed. The book adopts an analytical approach and focuses on the topic of excellence in the child welfare area. It also provides an opportunity for a greater understanding of child welfare systems in varying jurisdictions.

Domestic violence

Assessing family violence interventions: linking programs to research-based strategies, by R. Chalk, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, vol.4, no.1, 2000, pp.29-53.

Family violence and treatment programs are currently being offered without scientific evidence of the types of benefits to be gained from these programs and the types of clients who would benefit. This paper argues that it is important to develop appropriate theories, measures and datasets that will support more rigorous evaluations of these intervention programs. A recent report, "Violence in Families: Assessing Prevention and Treatment Programs" provides in-depth analysis of 114 intervention programs. The report includes policy and research recommendations that are designed to improve the quality of the evaluation of these types of intervention programs.

The Central Violence Intervention Program - 'a model of collaboration', by B. Duigan & J. Felus, Australian Domestic & Family Violence Clearinghouse Newsletter, no.5, Dec 2000, pp.4-6.

The Central Violence Intervention Program began operating in October 1999 and is a pilot program drawing on the experiences of models developed both internationally and within South Australia. The program attempts to provide an innovative approach to policy, practice and service delivery which promotes the safety of women and children by focusing on perpetrator accountability for the violence and abuse. This article provides an overview of the program, demonstrating how its commitment to collaboration both within the team and with participating core agencies is pivotal to the development of practices which are transparent and accountable and which reflect the core principles which underpin the program.

Children, young people and domestic violence, by L. Laing, Sydney, NSW, Australian Domestic & Family Violence Clearinghouse, University of New South Wales, 2000.

The relationships between children, young people, and domestic violence are explored in this issues paper. The author examines the ways in which children and young people experience domestic violence, and outlines the available data on the prevalence of this issue in their lives. This is followed by a section providing an overview of research on the impact of domestic violence on children and young people, and a discussion of the framework within which these impacts are understood. The next section describes efforts to improve ways of working with children and young people in counselling, support and prevention. The author then argues that the problems documented cannot be addressed solely through counselling, and that a multi system response is needed. The final section of the paper identifies current challenges posed by the growing knowledge about children, young people and domestic violence.

Evaluating interventions for children exposed to family violence, by S.A. Graham-Bermann, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, vol.4, no.1, 2000, pp.191-215.

This article provides a critical overview of the current state of evaluation research in regard to intervention programs which are currently being offered for children who witness family violence. A summary of the best intervention methods is offered. Suggestions for improving future research in the area are provided.

Identified spouse abuse as a risk factor for child abuse, by P.D. Rumm, P. Cummings & M.R.Krauss, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol.24, no.11, Nov 2000, pp.1375-1381.

This study questions whether spouse abuse should be considered a risk factor for child abuse. The study used the US Army Family Advocacy Program's Central database to identify child and spouse abuse among married couples with children and at least spouse being on active duty in the US Army during 1989-1995. The study found a strong association between an episode of spouse abuse and subsequent child abuse. Therefore, spouse abuse may serve as and independent risk factor for child abuse. Implications for care providers are discussed.

The relative importance of wife abuse as a risk factor for violence against children, by E.O. Tajima, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol.24, no.11, Nov 2000, pp.1383-1398.

This study confirms the association between wife abuse and child abuse. However, it stresses that other factors may need to be considered in our understanding of the increased risk attributed to wife abuse.

An unacceptable risk: a report on child contact arrangements where there is violence in the family, by R. Rendell, Z. Rathus & A. Lynch, Annerley, Qld Women's Legal Service, 2000.

The purpose of this research was to gather information on the way in which legal and welfare systems respond to women and children affected by violence and abuse after separation. Conducted over 12 months from January 1999, the methodology comprised a literature review, interviews with staff in key agencies, a survey of practitioners including lawyers, social workers and domestic violence workers, focus groups and individual interviews with women and ongoing input from the reference group. Issues discussed include: the link between domestic violence and child abuse; the role of the Family Court in child protection; characteristics of abuse of children in contact; reporting child abuse; legal aid in Queensland; and different legal pathways for different types of relationships. A summary of recommendations is provided.

The Way Forward: Children, Young People and Domestic Violence National Forum, April 2000, proceedings, Barton, ACT, Office of the Status of Women, for Partnerships Against Domestic Violence, 2000.

Sponsored by the Commonwealth's Partnerships Against Domestic Violence program, Children, Young People and Domestic Violence: The Way Forward was a major national forum held in Melbourne on 26 and 27 April 2000. The forum was a showcase of Partnerships' work in research and evaluation, relationship skills, Indigenous family violence, peer education, practice standards, community ed