Bibliography - Volunteering

Updated September 2003

Corporate volunteering
Cost savings of voluntary work
Male volunteers
Motivation
Older volunteers
Policy issues (including Mutual obligation)

Quality of life and volunteers
Rural communities
Social capital
Standards, guidelines
Trends and patterns of volunteerism
Young volunteers

See also Online resources and Useful Links on Volunteering

Corporate volunteering

Allen, K
The social case for corporate volunteering.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.8 no.1 2003: 57-62

There is a growing demand for corporate social responsibility by consumer concern, anti globalisation sentiment and the visible bad behaviour of business. An increased interest in corporate volunteering has implications for both non government and non profit organisations. It is to those organisations that business will turn to provide opportunities for their employees to volunteer. While the business case or rationale for this work is widely accepted, there has been no corresponding social case, no rationale developed from the non profit and non government sector. The purpose of this article is to suggest the core elements of that case; raise some of the costs involved for these organisations; and to discuss implications for further action.

Churchill, T; Templeton, C
Capacity building in the City of Hobsons Bay - the Toyota Community Spirit Program.
Paper presented at Volunteering: Real Choice, Real Change - International Year of Volunteers Conference, October 2001, Melbourne, 4p, Online (30 KB)
http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-22725 (Original URL no longer available, select Home Page from archive page, then select IYV Conference)
Following an overview of the City of Hobsons Bay, this paper describes a strategic alliance between the city's Council and the locally based Toyota in the form of Toyota's Community Spirit program. Toyota Community Spirit involves a local community program and community partnerships. The local program aims to improve Toyota's linkages with the local community and to build relationships with local stakeholders. It comprises two main parts: grants for community projects and an employee volunteer program. The program matches Toyota volunteers with local community groups requiring assistance with a specific project or task. Sharing knowledge, experience and expertise, the aim is to transfer knowledge and skills so that the group develops the capacity to undertake the task in the longer term.

Edgar, D
Voluntary and paid work in communities for the third millennium: a future that works for us all.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.4 no.2 Aug 1999: 11-18

Some of the current fears and concerns about the future of work, education and community in the coming information age are challenged in this article. It is argued that the future will require a networked community, not an industrially hierarchical one in which governments, business and trade unions dictate the terms of a socioeconomic consensus. What voluntary work entails is examined, highlighting what is meant by community as a concept. The changing nature of work; the need for upgrading job skills; and the need for local and regional enterprises to focus on their community responsibilities are issues considered. Criticisms are made of the current political emphasis on mutual responsibilities for young unemployed people, but not for businesses who use national resources for private profit. What is needed to prepare young people for life and future work is explored.

Murphy, J; Thomas, B
Partnership with the business sector in addressing social exclusion: a community development approach.
In: 'Promoting Inclusion - Redressing Exclusion: the Social Work Challenge' conference proceedings, Joint Conference of the AASW, IFSW, APASWE and AASWWE, September 1999. Barton, ACT: Australian Association of Social Workers, 1999, v.2, p110-117

Some of the recent literature outlining the changing role of business in society is summarised in this paper which focuses on reasons for the increasing willingness of business to work in partnership with their communities. The Body Shop in Australia is presented as an illustration of a business organisation pursuing partnerships with governments and the communities in which it operates. This involvement includes: corporate volunteering; partnerships with Indigenous groups; disadvantaged youth; and empowering communities.

New South Wales. Department of the Premier. Employee Volunteering Working Group
Employee volunteering guide: a resource for employers, volunteers and not-for-profit organisations.
Sydney, NSW: Department of the Premier, 2002, 25p, Online only
http://www.communitybuilders.nsw.gov.au/builder/volunteering/evg.html
This guide aims to be a practical resource. It is for all parties to employee volunteering - the employees of an organisation, the employer and the not-for-profit organisation who has activities that are suitable for the volunteers. The guide covers what employee volunteering is; getting started; implementation; promotion; evaluation; and where to get more information.

Redmond, L
From good intentions to good results: employee volunteering in action.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.8 no.1 2003: 63-68

This article provides information about what makes for good employee volunteering / employee community involvement programs. It covers defining employee volunteering; the drivers for employee volunteering; the challenges of employee volunteering; planning; projects; brokers; and overall comments on what is good employee volunteering.

Swift, D
Building an approach to corporate volunteering from a public sector perspective.
Paper presented at Volunteering: Real Choice, Real Change - International Year of Volunteers Conference, October 2001, Melbourne, 15p, Online (450 KB)
http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-22725-20020516-www.iyv2001.net/conference/pa per18.doc (Archived copy)
Corporate volunteering programs can be defined as 'those mechanisms used by companies that support and facilitate employee volunteer activities in community based non-profit organisations and groups in need of services and assistance'. The author outlines briefly what corporate volunteering is and how it can benefit organisations; provides a snapshot of some of the programs that are in place here and overseas; and outlines some of the issues faced in the public sector and describes the first steps taken to move towards an employee volunteering program in the Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services.

Cost savings of voluntary work:

Australian Bureau of Statistics
Unpaid work and the Australian economy, 1997. Canberra, ACT: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000, 64p, tables (ABS catalogue no.5240.0)

This paper discusses estimates of the value of productive unpaid work that falls outside the definitions of conventional measures of production in the Australian System of National Accounts (ASNA), such as gross domestic product (GDP). The unpaid work that is the subject of this paper consists of two broad types: services produced by households for their own consumption, such as meal preparation and child care, and volunteer and community work, such as care of aged relatives, provided free of charge to others. Besides providing the latest estimates for unpaid work, the paper includes a discussion of issues associated with the valuation of unpaid work and the boundary between unpaid work and leisure activities. Information is also provided on factors that can cause shifts between unpaid work and measured production.

Gray, M; de Vaus, D; Stanton, D
Measuring the value of unpaid houshold, caring and voluntary work of older Australians.
In: Social security in a long life society: 4th International Research Conference on Social Security, Antwerp, 5-7 May 2003. Geneva, Switzerland: International Social Security Association, 2003, 25p, figures, tables, Online only (PDF 751 KB)
http://www.issa.int/pdf/anvers03/topic2/2gray.pdf
As the proportion of the Australian population aged 65 or older increases, the direct financial costs to governments are expected to rise due to the income support and health costs associated with an older population. The authors suggest that a focus on these financial costs has led to an unduly negative, problem oriented view of population ageing that neglects the contribution of older citizens to the social and economic well being of the nation. This paper seeks to estimate the financial value of the unpaid contributions of older people - both to their family and to the wider community. The paper discusses the measurement and definition of unpaid work and the data used; discusses the valuation method used, and presents estimates of the value of unpaid work. It also estimates the value of caring for a sick spouse. The authors show that, based on time use data, men and women aged 65 and over contribute almost $39 billion per year in unpaid caring and voluntary work.

Ironmonger, D
Measuring volunteering in economic terms: 2,200 million hours worth $42 billion a year.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p56-72, tables, figures

The importance of unpaid labour to Australian society is considered in this chapter which uses Australian Bureau of Statistics Time Use data from the 1970s to the 1990s to provide an economic estimate of the value of unpaid labour over the past 20 years and give it a dollar value. Statistics are presented and discussion centres on: measuring hours of volunteer time; the increase in volunteer effort; type of voluntary work; volunteering through organisations; time spent on household work; and the value of volunteer time.

Legge, V; O'Loughlin, K; Cant, R
Still serving: older people in the home and community. In: Alexander, M. et al, eds. Refashioning sociology: responses to a new world order: The Australian Sociological Association (TASA) conference proceedings. Brisbane, Qld: QUT, 1998, p77-82

Examining both the monetary and non-monetary contributions of older people to the community as a counter balance to the argument that older people are a drain upon the community, this paper focuses on the financial and physical contributions made by older people to the continuing generation and the contributions made through volunteer work, particularly that made by older women. There is a brief speculative discussion of political and social changes in health and retirement patterns that have the potential to radically moderate the current dependency ratios.

Ranzijn, R; Harford, J; Andrews, G
Ageing and the economy: costs and benefits. Australasian Journal on Ageing v.21 no.3 Sept 2002: 145-151, tables, figures

The purpose of this study was to estimate the financial value of the productive contributions that older adults make to South Australian society and to compare this to the cost of maintaining them in good health and well being. 391 participants aged between 65 and 101 years were interviewed over the telephone about the number of hours per week engaged in a comprehensive list of activities in the previous week, and half of the sample also completed a week-long inventory of goods and services which they produced. The goods and services were converted into financial values using current market rates. The costs of health and aged care were obtained from official sources like the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The total value of productive activities was estimated to be between A$4.9 and A$8.1 billion, and the value of work performed for other people was estimated at between $0.82 and $1.38bn (the South Australian older population is about 200,000). The cost of health and aged care was calculated to be about $1.8bn. It was concluded that older South Australians make essential contributions to society, contributions which have a very large economic value. (Journal abstract)

Soupourmas, F; Ironmonger, D
Giving time: the economic and social value of volunteering in Victoria.
Melbourne, Vic: Department of Human Services, 2002, 83p plus appendices, tables, figures, Online (PDF 2.2 MB)
http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/pdpd/pdfs/givingtime.pdf
Supported by a grant for the International Year of Volunteers 2001, this report aims to investigate the status of volunteer activity in Victoria by: exploring the motivations of volunteers; examining the definition of voluntary work; quantifying the economic value of volunteering; identifying and documenting the social impact of volunteering; and raising awareness about volunteering. Drawing on literature, research and national statistical reports, the report estimates the economic value of formal and informal volunteering in Victoria, taking into consideration the contribution that volunteering makes to the social fabric of our communities.

Swindell, R; Vassella, K
Money talks: ascribing a dollar value to voluntarism in Australian and New Zealand U3As. Australasian Journal on Ageing v.18 no.1 Feb 1999: 19-22, tables

The purpose of this study was to ascribe a dollar value to voluntarism in Australian and New Zealand Universities of the Third Age (U3A). Questionnaires were sent to administrators of all U3As in Australia and NZ asking them to itemise and quantify every activity carried out by volunteers in their organisations. Hours were totalled by country and, using a notional value of $10 per hour, an overall dollar worth was calculated. The value of U3A voluntarism in Australia is more than $4 million annually. For NZ the value is more than $300,000. The value of voluntarism by older people tends to be taken for granted or overlooked entirely by many in society. The authors conclude that in today's cost benefit focused climate a monetary equivalent should be calculated for voluntarism and the real value included with other measures of national productivity.

Male volunteers:

Australian Bureau of Statistics
Voluntary work, Australia, 2000.
Canberra, ACT: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001, 44p, statistical tables (ABS catalogue no.4441.0)

This publication contains results from the second national Survey of Voluntary Work conducted throughout Australia in 2000. The first survey was conducted in June 1995. The major aim of the survey was to collect data on rates of participation in voluntary work, characteristics of people who volunteer, the types of organisations for which they work, and the activities they undertake. Information on whether people made monetary donations to organisations was also collected. It is noted that growth in volunteer rates occurred for both sexes and across all age groups, but particularly the 18-24 and 55-64 years groups.

Fletcher, R
Men's roles in family services. Unpublished, 1998, 8p. Paper presented at Changing families, challenging futures, 6th Australian Institute of Families Studies Conference, Melbourne, November 1998.

Family-oriented services have traditionally been staffed primarily by women and focused on mother and children. A number of emerging social issues however are directing services to address men. Domestic violence and child abuse require addressing men as perpetrators. Boys' underachievement and risk taking compels services to seek effective role models among adult males. The experience of the Family Action Centre, an independently funded centre of the University of Newcastle, in incorporating a male perspective into its family work with marginalised groups is described in this paper. New approaches to recruiting, supervising and supporting male volunteers were developed. An overview of the limitations of ad hoc incorporation of men into family oriented services is provided. (Author abstract)

O'Loughlin, K; Legge, V; Cant, R
Options in retirement: paid, unpaid work or leisure? In: Alexander, M. et al, eds. Refashioning sociology: responses to a new world order: The Australian Sociological Association (TASA) conference proceedings. Brisbane, Qld: QUT, 1998, p320-325

Two distinct aspects of retirement are the focus of this study: the reasons given by participants in the workforce for considering retirement, and the post-retirement plans and activities of participants. The results are discussed, indicating that the reasons for retirement did not differ along gender lines, but the plans and activities did, with women anticipating a range of unpaid activities within the family, household and voluntary sector, while men planned to engage in paid, part-time work and leisure activities.

Warburton, J; Crosier, T
Are we too busy to volunteer? The relationship between time and volunteering using the 1997 ABS time use data. Australian Journal of Social Issues v.36 no.4 Nov 2001: 295-314

Time availability is a key concept in relation to volunteering, leading to organisations and governments targeting those outside paid work as a potential source of volunteers. It may be that factors such as a growth in female participation in the labour market and an increase in work hours will lead to more people saying they are simply too busy to volunteer. This paper discusses how social and economic change, such as changing work patterns, are impacting on time availability. Using the 1997 ABS Time Use data, it identifies a predictive model of spare time by looking at demographic, life stage and employment related variables. Results confirm that those outside paid work, particularly the young, males and those without partners or children, are the groups most likely to have time to spare. These groups do not currently report high rates of volunteering. The paper concludes by questioning the premise that people will volunteer simply because they have time to spare. This is just one component of a range of motivations and factors that influence the decision to volunteer. (Journal abstract)

Motivation

Green, J; Blacket, D
It's a personal thing: volunteer motivation across two generations in a Sydney area health service: implications for management.
Lindfield, NSW: Centre for Australian Community Organisations and Management, University of Technology Sydney, 2002, 18p, tables (CACOM working paper no.58)

This report outlines a study undertaken to explore motivation across volunteers of different generations and the implications for workforce management. The study was conducted at the local area Health Service in the Northern Beaches of Sydney and compared participants who began volunteering before 1985 with those who began volunteering after 1997. As well as considering the different expectations of the two groups, the authors put forward a number of conclusions about management practices in the health services.

Hughes, P
Volunteering.
Pointers: Bulletin of the Christian Research Association v.11 no.3 Sept 2001: 4-7

With a focus on factors that are significant in people's decision to be involved in voluntary work, the author reports and compares questions and findings from three studies of voluntary work: the latest study by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, reported in 2001; The Australian Community Survey conducted by NCLS Research and Edith Cowan University in 1998; and a major study of voluntary participation in political activities in the United States (Verba, Schlozman and Brady, 1995). The role of the churches is discussed, and the author concludes that the findings suggest that religion, sustained by regular involvement in worship, provide an important context in which people become motivated for specific voluntary activities.

Hughes, P; Black, A
The impact of various personal and social characteristics on volunteering.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.7 no.2 2002: 59-69, tables

This paper examines data drawn from the Australian Community Survey conducted by researchers from Edith Cowan University and NCLS Research in 1998. Three categories of voluntary involvement are identified: assisting individuals who need help; contributing to community life such as through coaching a sports team, serving on a school committee, collecting donations, and the like; and involvement in various types of community groups or organisations. Particular attention is given to the impact of factors such as age, gender, education, occupation, religious involvement, and other personal or social characteristics on each of these categories of voluntary activity. The analysis reveals differences in the characteristics of volunteers in each of these categories. Nevertheless, in each category the characteristics can be explained in terms of Verba, Schlozman and Brady's (1995) model of civic voluntarism which identifies three key categories of factors contributing to voluntary involvement: people's feeling that they have resources to contribute, the operation of networks for recruitment and the existence of a motivation to volunteer. The data also indicate that religious involvement is of particular importance in contributing to motivation and recruitment for voluntary work. The impact of religious involvement is greatest in voluntary work assisting individuals who need help. (Journal abstract)

Leonard, R
A qualitative exploration of women's volunteering in human services.
Third Sector Review v.8 no.2 2002: 31-50

Volunteering makes a substantial contribution to human services in Australia but the context in which it takes place has changed over the past twenty years. The changes have been accompanied by differing constructions of voluntary work by governments and researchers. The present research explores how the women volunteers themselves construct their work in the current dynamic environment. The data were collected from ten focus groups of women (120 women) providing human services through formal volunteering. A qualitative analysis revealed that these women constructed their voluntary work through the dominant themes of 'efficacy through caring', 'social connection', and 'recognition (versus exploitation)'. The metaphor of the gift, which encapsulated much of the women's perspective, did not fit easily with the constructions of governments and researchers. It is argued that any way forward must take into account the understandings of differing stakeholders with the constructions of the volunteers themselves of central focus. (Journal abstract)

Melville, R
Competitive tendering and NSW community legal centre volunteers: an exploratory study.
Alternative Law Journal v.28 no.1 Feb 2003: 27-31, tables

The purpose of the study reported in this article is to explore the activities, motivations and attitudes of legal volunteers in community legal centres. Results indicate that volunteers are concerned with the ramifications of the introduction of policies, including charging fees, merit testing and centralised casework. They are also concerned that competitive tendering will result in significant changes to the philosophy and structure of community legal centres. Approximately 20 percent of volunteers indicated that they would withdraw their services if policies of privatisation and competitive tendering were pursued in community legal centres.

Zappala, G
How many people volunteer in Australia and why do they do it?
Camperdown, NSW: The Smith Family, 2000, 4p, tables (Research and advocacy briefing paper no.4)
/>Governments promote volunteering as part of their social policy platforms. Policies that promote volunteering are about influencing the extent or numbers of people engaging in voluntary activity. A key factor that can affect the success of any such policy is whether governments or non profit organisations can influence the motivations that drive people to undertake voluntary activity. This paper examines the evidence on two key dimensions of volunteering: the extent of volunteering and factors influencing its rise or decline; and the reasons people volunteer. It concludes by highlighting implications for organisations and government policy on volunteering.

Zappala, G; Burrell, T
Why are some volunteers more committed than others? A socio-psychological approach to volunteer commitment in community services.
Camperdown, NSW: The Smith Family, 2001, 19p, tablees (Working paper no.5)
Why do some volunteers donate more of their time than others? Using data from a national survey of volunteers at The Smith Family, this paper applies multivariate techniques to examine the factors associated with volunteer commitment defined as the number of hours volunteered per month as well as the number of times volunteered per year.

Zappala, G; Burrell, T
Understanding the factors associated with volunteer commitment: a case study of volunteers in community service.
Third Sector Review v.8 no.2 2002: 5-30, tables

This article examines why some volunteers donate more of their time than others. In other words, it explores the factors associated with volunteer 'commitment'. Although there is a substantial body of research looking at the factors which distinguish volunteers from non-volunteers, there is less research on the factors which may explain differences in the commitment of volunteers. It has recently been argued that 'highly committed volunteers' are important for the continuous functioning of civil society. This article examines the factors associated with volunteer commitment using data from a national survey of volunteers at The Smith Family (TSF), a large community services, public-serving, nonprofit organisation. The article applies multivariate techniques to examine the factors associated with volunteer commitment, defined as the number of hours volunteered per month. It finds that volunteer commitment is associated with a range of volunteers' socio-demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, and motivations for volunteering. The results support a multidimensional model of volunteer commitment that includes all relevant groups of variables, in particular, those that capture both sociological and psychological aspects of volunteering. (Journal abstract)

Older volunteers

Australian Bureau of Statistics
Older Australians.
In: Year book Australia 1999. Canberra, ACT: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999, CD-ROM (ABS catalogue no.1301.0.30.001 CD-ROM), and Online in Australia Now: A Statistical Profile
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca2568200019 2af2/6b9368cbaa7e2f8bca2569de00221c81!OpenDocument
This demographic profile of older Australians has the following sections: Demographic characteristics; Growth of the older population; International comparisons; Living arrangements; How older Australians use their time; Caring and community activities; Older volunteers.

Baldock, C V
Governing the senior volunteer in Australia, the USA and the Netherlands.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p83-97

This chapter explores the connection between the kind of aged person governing authorities seek to cultivate, and their governing practices regarding older people as volunteers. The focus is on what kind of activities are seen as appropriate for older persons and whether volunteering is seen as relevant in this context. In addressing this question for Australia, a comparative study including the USA and the Netherlands is considered.

Baldock, C V
Seniors as volunteers: an international perspective on policy. Ageing and Society v.10 no.5 Sept 1999: 581-602

Public policies regarding the participation of older people in volunteer work in the United States, Australia and the Netherlands are described and contrasted in this paper which raises the question of to what extent seniors ought to be encouraged through government initiatives to increase their social participation. Conclusions indicate that older people are active participants in volunteer work in all three countries, with the United States more involved in senior-specific programs, Australia less so and the Netherlands not at all. Reasons why policy makers and volunteer coordinators see these programs as valuable are identified.

Benn, C; McCarthy, T; Weeks, W
Social capital, volunteerism and older women. In: Poole, M. and Feldman, S. eds. A certain age: women growing older. St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1999, 134-152

Older Australian women make an inestimable contribution to the delivery of human services within the community. This chapter aims to develop a critical discussion of the tensions and contradictions regarding the social and economic value of older women's volunteering. The authors discuss a small empirical study of women volunteers that illustrates the particular significance of older women's volunteering activity and contribution to the community. They also explore the alternative discourses that seek to understand and explain volunteer work. The case example presented is a Victorian service called Victorian Court Information and Welfare Network (Court Network), which is dominated by the contribution of older women.

Fogg, S
A two way street: older people and volunteering. Sydney, NSW: NSW Committee on Ageing, 1999, 72p, tables, figures, illus.

As well as older volunteers playing an essential role in the community, volunteering also enriches the lives of volunteers, and may provide important quality of life and health benefits. Although many older people are active in their communities, it may be a false assumption to presume that retired people will be prepared to volunteer more, or volunteer in an organisation rather than in informal ways of helping others. In the lead up to the International Year of Volunteers in 2001, the NSW government asked the NSW Committee on Ageing for advice about the level of interest in volunteering among older people themselves, and why people undertake volunteering. As a result the Committee on Ageing undertook a sample survey of older people living in two areas of NSW, public consultations in those two areas with older people and relevant organisations, targeted interviews and discussions with key people from non English speaking backgrounds and Aboriginal communities, and a literature search. This publication is the result. It reports findings of the project, and identifies strategies needed to attract, encourage and support older volunteers, and barriers to volunteering that need to be removed.

Moran, D
Intergenerational family support. In: 7th Australasian Conference on Child Abuse and Neglect, Perth, WA, October 1999: conference proceedings. Canning Bridge, WA: Promaco Conventions, 1999, volume 2, p591-600, tables.

This paper describes the Helping Hands program, a volunteer intergenerational program to promote children's wellbeing. Helping Hands brings together senior volunteers willing to share their time and experience with families or individuals wanting the involvement of an older person in their lives. It is funded through the Office of Seniors Interests and conducted by Anglicare. Direct and indirect benefits are described, issues of community connectedness and social capital are discussed, and reasons for focusing on seniors are explained.

Onyx, J; Warburton, J
Volunteering and health among older people: a review.
Australasian Journal on Ageing v.22 no.2 Jun 2003: 65-69

This paper presents a review of the available literature on the relationship between volunteering and health among older people. There is consistent evidence that morbidity rates, functional health indices, self reported health and life satisfaction are affected by formal and informal volunteering. Some studies suggest that the benefits of volunteering are reciprocal, in that both those who give and those who receive assistance benefit. The evidence is consistent with the proposal that social capital is generated through volunteering. It is likely that the presence of high levels of social capital supports and maintains the health of older persons, provides informal support in times of sickness and stress and thus enhances quality of life as well as reducing or delaying the onset of illness and death. (Journal abstract)

Quine, S
How do older immigrants view volunteer work, and do they have different training and support needs? In: Rice, P.L. ed. Living in a new country: understanding migrants' health. Ascot Vale, Vic: Ausmed Publications, 1999, p240-242

The issue of volunteerism and ethnicity is addressed in this chapter which discusses the Medicine Information Project, a volunteer training program initiated through the NSW Combined Pensioners and Superannuants Association. The project targets ethnic aged as well as Anglo aged. A study which sought to identify attitudes amongst potential trainees towards volunteering, is described, with data on volunteerism obtained through 12 focus groups comprising people from Anglo, Italian, Chinese, Arabic and Greek backgrounds. Results are presented, revealing that Anglo older people are willing to volunteer for work outside their local community but that ethnic groups were less willing to do this. Reasons why this may be so are identified and implications and recommendations are considered.

Warburton, J
Volunteering in the post-retirement years. In: Saunders, P. and Eardley, T. eds. States, markets, communities: remapping the boundaries: proceedings of the National Social Policy Conference, Sydney, July 1997. Sydney, NSW: Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 1997, v.1, p165-175, tables. (SPRC reports and proceedings no.136)

This paper is based on the preliminary results of research conducted in 1996, based on a multi-methods survey of older people living in Brisbane which aimed to investigate older people's decision-making processes, focusing specifically on the factors which differentiate those who volunteer for an organisation from those who do not. Key themes which are emerging from this study are identified and include: personal values and life context; ageism and the views of others; and assumptions about time. Suggestions are made that it is simplistic to assume that as the majority of people are outside paid work, they can be viewed as a resource for volunteer organisations, thus enabling the government to reduce the size of its services.

Ranzijn, R; Harford, J; Andrews, G

Western Australia. Office of Seniors Interests
BOOMNET: capturing the baby boomer volunteers: a 2001 research project into baby boomers and volunteering.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.7 no.1 2002: 15-17

The acronym BOOMNET covers the seven focus areas that must be met for Baby Boomers to commence volunteering for an organisation. BOOMNET stands for Boomers, Organised, Openness, Meaningful, Needs, Education and Time. This article discusses the options for maximising volunteering among the baby boomer population.

Policy issues

Brown, K
The future of volunteering: a perspective.
QCOSS Bulletin Nov 2001: 11-12

The relationships between volunteers and the voluntary or non-profit sector is inextricably linked, states the author. Her paper attempts to make clearer the role of government policy in fostering its relationship with the community sector and that of volunteers. Questions are addressed such as: Why the sudden interest in volunteers by political parties of all persuasions? Why are services funded on the expectation that they will function on volunteer labour? Are work-for-the-dole volunteers committed to the organisations for which they work? What is the reality of creating 'work readiness' through work-for-the-dole programs when there is still no work to be ready for? If 'welfare' is no longer the responsibility of the state, with government providing a safety net only, does this then mean that the needy are to be satisfied by the social coalition of community and business?

Cockram, J
The impact of compulsory community participation on the not for profit sector in Western Australia.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.8 no.1 2003: 5-14

The literature presented in this article reflects a general overview of issues which may arise for the unemployed involved in compulsory community participation activities. Little evidence is available of the impact that this group is having on community agencies. The aim of this research was to assist in redressing what is seen as an inadequately researched area, and one which has important consequences for the not for profit sector.

Cordingley, S
The definition and principles of volunteering: a framework for public policy.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p73-82, tables

A definition of formal volunteering, developed by Volunteering Australia, the peak body for the voluntary sector, is detailed in this chapter which includes a specific set of 11 principles. Implications for social policy and for organisations that involve volunteers are considered.

Crampton, P; Woodward, A; Dowell, A
The role of the third sector in providing primary care services: theoretical and policy issues.
Social Policy Journal of New Zealand no.17 Dec 2001: 1-21

The purpose of this paper is to promote debate on the devolution of primary care services to the third sector. The paper first discusses definitions of the term 'third sector', then provides a precis of important political and economic theories related to the third sector. This is followed by a brief account of the development and role of third sector primary care in New Zealand. The final section discusses policy issues arising from third sector provision of primary care. The paper concludes that the emergence of third sector primary care in New Zealand has been consistent with international experience of third sector involvement - there were perceived 'failures' in government policies for funding primary care, and private sector responses to these policies, resulting in lack of universal funding and provision of primary care and continuing patient co-payments. These failures created the type of 'gap' that, based on international experience, third sector organisations tend to fill. If the existence in New Zealand of third sector primary care is accepted - either as explicit policy or de facto - policies may be required to limit the financial pressures placed on non-profits that may lead them to deviate from the social role they can and should play in New Zealand's mixed economy, and to help move the economy to an agreed balance of institutional responsibilities among private enterprises, governments and non-profits. (Journal abstract)

Edgar, D
Voluntary and paid work in communities for the third millennium: a future that works for us all. Australian Journal on Volunteering v.4 no.2 Aug 1999: 11-18

Some of the current fears and concerns about the future of work, education and community in the coming information age are challenged in this article. It is argued that the future will require a networked community, not an industrially hierarchical one in which governments, business and trade unions dictate the terms of a socioeconomic consensus. What voluntary work entails is examined, highlighting what is meant by community as a concept. The changing nature of work; the need for upgrading job skills; and the need for local and regional enterprises to focus on their community responsibilities are issues considered. Criticisms are made of the current political emphasis on mutual responsibilities for young unemployed people, but not for businesses who use national resources for private profit. What is needed to prepare young people for life and future work is explored.

Erlinghagen, M; Wagner, G G
Can voluntary work be a substitute for gainful employment? Should welfare recipients earn their benefits by doing voluntary work? Australian Social Monitor v.5 no.1 Feb 2002: 1-6, tables

The McClure Committee on welfare reform, set up by the Federal Government, proposed that some unemployed people who were not yet ready for paid work might be required to undertake volunteer or community work. The same proposal has been made in Germany, and this paper uses panel survey data on German unemployed people to show that the unemployed do little volunteering, and tend to drop volunteer work when they become unemployed. It seems unlikely that the Australian proposal, if implemented, would result in much effective community work. (Journal abstract)

Fitzgerald, R
Work for the dole scheme will not work. NCOSS News v.24 no.2 Mar 1997: 5

Despite the popular support for the work for the dole scheme, ACOSS's position on this strategy argues that some of this support might evaporate if it was known that the scheme is being offered as a substitute for the 120,000 employment and training placements for young people. The problem of using volunteering as part of employment assistance programs is considered and the question of the reciprocal obligations between government and unemployed people is examined.

Frow, L
Mutual obligation and volunteering? NCOSS News v.28 no.10 Dec 2001: 6-7

The author explains that under current Centrelink policies, volunteering with community based organisations is one of a number of ways in which Centrelink clients can fulfil mutual obligation requirements. She identifies a number of ethical and practical problems for those services that take on volunteers under the Voluntary Work Initiative, including the time and costs involved in supervision and training, volunteer insurance, and the fact that some mutual obligation volunteers do not really want to be in the service.

Kerr, L; Savelsberg, H.
Volunteering for the dole: towards a new social contract? In: Carson, E., Jamrozik, A. and Winefield, T. eds. Unemployment: economic promise and political will. Magill, SA: Social Policy Research Group, University of South Australia, 1998, p218-226

The reasoning behind the new policy of the Department of Social Security on the amount and nature of volunteer work which may be undertaken by people recieving unemployment benefits is explored in this paper which argues that public sector withdrawal from provision of programs and resources for unemployed people reflects a free market ideology in government policy, emphasising a new social contractual relationship between the benefit recipient, the state and the community.

Quantum Market Research
International Year of Volunteers evaluation: full report.
Canberra, ACT: Department of Family and Community Services, 2002, 139p, tables, figures Online
http://www.facs.gov.au/sa/volunteers/pubs/IYV2001_EvaluationReport/
The International Year of Volunteers was intended to leave a lasting impression on the Australian community, acting as a springboard for strong voluntary activity in years to come. The Minister for Family and Community Services (FaCS) coordinated the Commonwealth's initiatives to celebrate IYV, allocating over $15 million to support the Year. This report draws findings from an initial overview by Quantum of materials provided by FaCS; exploratory qualitative evaluation research; and quantitative measurements of key aspects of the evaluation framework. The report states that, from the results delivered through this evaluation, it is apparent that FaCS' involvement in IYV 2001 has delivered successfully on all three core objectives; celebration, culture-building and engagement.

Saunders, P
Working for the dole: patterns of paid and volunteer work among income support recipients.
Australian Journal of Social Issues v.37 no.4 Nov 2002: 337-362, tables

The nature and extent of economic and social participation have received increased attention in recent discussion of welfare reform. This paper examines the extent to which income support recipients are participating in two forms of participation - paid work and volunteer activity. The analysis is restricted to those in receipt of Newstart Allowance, Parenting Payment and Disability Support Pension, and draws on data from the Customer Participation Survey (CPS) undertaken in July and August 1998. The paper discusses the concept of participation and briefly reviews several studies of participation and the welfare-to-work transition among those on income support; describes the main features of the CPS data; describes the overall patterns of participation among the three groups of income support recipients, compares them with other estimates, examines the nature of participation activity in detail and the attitudes to participation held by income support recipients; and finally presents conclusions.

Tennant, M
Governments and voluntary sector welfare: historians' perspectives.
Social Policy Journal of New Zealand no.17 Dec 2001: 147-160

This paper examines recent themes in the history of welfare as they apply to the relationship between government and the voluntary or non-profit sector. These include a shift from a focus on the welfare state to a 'mixed economy' or 'moving frontier', of welfare, and the emergence of a longterm view that shows a centuries-old contestation between public and private provision for social need. The rehabilitation of past philanthropy has helped to reinforce the profile and legitimacy of the voluntary sector in the present, while recent attention to the actual encounters between providers and recipients of welfare has complicated earlier social control theories. Gender studies have illustrated the respective roles of men and women in the different welfare sectors, the voluntary sector providing a sympathetic space in which women, in particular, have attempted to exercise social power. Typologies derived from internationally comparative studies of the non-profit sector have tended to emphasise the complementary nature of its relationship with governments. This paper suggests some distinctive elements in New Zealand's history which shaped such interactions in the past, and which now impose constraints, as well as suggesting pathways for the future. (Journal abstract)

Warburton, J; McDonald, C
Compulsory volunteering under mutual obligation policies: implications for the future. Just Policy no.26 May 2002: 11-17

Volunteers are an acknowledged resource for the non profit sector. In this paper the authors focus on the changing social policy context in Australia, and look at the position of volunteers within this changing context. They hypothesise about the impact of mutual obligation policies on volunteer motivation and behaviour. The preferred option of mutual obligation is paid work, but community service through the non profit sector is seen as an alternative. The government has introduced a number of volunteer type schemes designed to ensure active participation by welfare recipients. The compulsory volunteering schemes are not truly volunteer schemes because they remove the essential element of volunteering, that is, choice. The authors argue that removing choice from volunteering decisions may have long term implications.

Warburton, J; Mutch, A
Volunteer resources: will people continue to volunteer in the next century?
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p32-43

Data reported in this chapter are from an exploratory study focusing on structured volunteering in the non profit welfare sector in Brisbane. The effect that social, political and economic change is having on volunteering in Australia is examined and changes to the profile, use and motivations of volunteers within a new policy context are considered.

Quality of life & volunteers:

Dollard, M; Rogers, L; Cordingley, S; Metzer, J
Volunteer work: managers' conceptualisations of factors affecting volunteer quality of life. Third Sector Review v.5 no.2 1999: 5-23, table

Although the quality of work life for paid workers has been given significant attention in the literature, this is not the case for volunteer workers. To explore the key issues that affect the quality of work life for volunteers, 21 managers of volunteer programs (government and community) in South Australia were surveyed. Major issues identified were (in order) the maintenance of a consistent volunteer workforce; the appropriateness of the role/s that volunteers are sometimes asked to perform; and specific aspects of volunteer work that contribute to the quality of one's lifestyle. Recommendations for action, identified as most important at a government level, were the need for government recognition of the value of volunteer work; government policy to protect volunteers; and awareness of the impact of economic rationalism on volunteers. Further debate and reviews of policies affected by economic rationalism are required. The paper aims to raise these issues, stimulating discussion and debate which may lead to policy formulations and management practices. These policies and practices must ensure that volunteer rights in the workplace are met and the quality of volunteer work life is enhanced. (Journal abstract)

Fogg, S
A two way street: older people and volunteering. Sydney, NSW: NSW Committee on Ageing, 1999, 72p, tables, figures, illus.

Townsend, M; Mahoney, M; Hallebone, E
The role of volunteerism in maintaining emergency services in small rural communities. In: Leaping the boundary fence: using evidence and collaboration to build healthier rural communities: proceedings of the 5th National Rural Health Conference, Adelaide, March 1999. Deakin West, ACT: National Rural Health Alliance, 1999, p475-480, and Online http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-10767-19991208-http://www.ruralhealth.org.au/fifthconf/program.htm

To what extent is the health and well-being of small rural communities dependent upon voluntary contributions of community members? What factors are influencing the viability of emergency services in small rural communities? In what ways are changing demands upon emergency service volunteers impacting on their own and their families' health and well-being? These questions are addressed in this paper which draws on the findings of the authors' research within the Victorian Country Fire Authority and on relevant literature.

Rural communities:

Greet, P
Beyond the tyranny of distance: the challenge of supporting volunteers in the bush.
Paper presented at Volunteering: Real Choice, Real Change - International Year of Volunteers Conference, October 2001, Melbourne, 12p, Online (237 KB)
http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-22725-20020516-www.iyv2001.net/conference/pa per1.doc
The Queensland Cancer Fund relies on the combined efforts of its 109 staff and 1915 volunteers to provide services, support and information to a population of just over 3 million people spread across a territory of more than 1.7 million square kilometres. This presentation focuses specifically on the operation and management of the QCF volunteer program in regional and rural areas of Queensland, identifying and recognising the contributions which can be made from the most remote and isolated volunteers.

Moorhouse, C
Consumers and volunteers as collaborators: lessons from rural palliative care research.
In: Good Health - good country: from conception to completion: proceedings of the 6th National Rural Health Conference, Canberra, March 2001. Deakin West, ACT: National Rural Health Alliance, 2001, 10p, Online only (75 KB)
http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-10767-20020417-www.ruralhealth.org.au/sixthc onf/moorhousepaper.htm
This paper considers health service consumer and volunteer involvement in general, with particular consideration of some of the implications for rural health and for rural people. Specifically it addresses the potential role for health service consumers and volunteers in rural health research. Issues discussed include: the essence of collaboration; consumer involvement in palliative care; volunteer involvement in palliative care; and collaboration in other rural health contexts.

Murphy, E M
RAPlink - linking people and resources in regional Australia.
Paper presented at Volunteering: Real Choice, Real Change - International Year of Volunteers Conference, October 2001, Melbourne, 6p, Online (36 KB)
http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-22725 (Original URL no longer available, select Home Page from archive page, then select IYV Conference)
RAPlink (Regional Action Partnership Link) is a link between rural, remote and other communities and sources of information and help for projects that will assist community growth. It is a communication channel with links and networks all round Australia, particularly in rural and remote areas. It is a database and research starting point for information about community lifestyles, needs, human resources. Practical help is provided when needed, and volunteer professional advisers are available to visit communities if requested. RAPlink is entirely voluntary, and keeps its costs to a minimum by operating almost entirely by email and the Web. This overview shows the history of RAPlink and its major objectives, aiming to demonstrate how they can be achieved through regional action partnerships and Internet links. RAPlink can be found on the Internet at http://www/raplink.org.au.

New South Wales. Premier's Department
Rural and regional volunteering support.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.7 no.1 2002: 11-13

Following the announcement of the Regional Volunteering Support Strategy, a series of surveys was conducted to ascertain the current state of volunteering support in rural and regional New South Wales. Key findings of the surveys are presented in this article.

Social capital:

Baum, F; Modra, C; Bush, R; Cox, E; Cooke, R; Potter, R
Volunteering and social capital: an Adelaide study. Australian Journal on Volunteering v.4 no.1 Feb 1999: 13-22, tables

The Health Development and Social Capital project, a survey of participation and health which explored the contribution of social and civic engagement and volunteering to the health of a community, looked at the characteristics of volunteers within the community in the western suburbs of Adelaide, South Australia, to establish which activities volunteers were engaged in beyond their primary volunteering activity. This paper reports some data from this study and examines the role of volunteering in social capital accumulation. It is suggested that governments should assist groups who place and support volunteers and look at ways of encouraging and supporting volunteers as a confidence building process.

Cox, E
The 'light and dark' of volunteering.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p140-149

Raising concerns about the over use of some concepts of social capital to promote volunteering as the major contribution to social cohesion, this chapter examines some of the possible problems in volunteering and suggests alternative views of forms and social capital production. Characteristics of the current volunteer labour force are considered and issues of the role of volunteers; altruism; social capital; and what is meant by voluntary work are addressed.

Ewins, J; Sinclair, R; Wellesley, B; Cant, R
Good Beginnings Volunteer Home Visiting Program: creating a new form of extended family. Child Abuse Prevention: National Child Protection Clearinghouse Newsletter v.7 no.1 Autumn 1999: 5-7, and Online http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/newsletters/nl1999/nlaut99.html

This article combines an edited version of a paper Good Beginnings: Creating a New Form of an Extended Family, presented during the Sixth Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference in Melbourne, 1998, with an executive summary by Rosemary Cant of the evaluation of the program. Issues explored include: the focus of Good Beginnings which is a program using volunteer parents who help new parents build self-confidence, thus helping ensure that children have a healthy start in life; government support for Good Beginnings; how children and parents benefit; how government and non- government agencies benefit; evaluation of the program; attitudes of parents and volunteers; quality, flexibility and cultural sensitivity; community connectedness and social capital; and sustainability.

Kenny, S
Constructions of volunteerism in third sector organisations: some comparisons.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.8 no.1 2003: 15-22

This paper is concerned with notions of volunteerism in third sector organisations. It argues that volunteerism takes different forms and involves different practices according to the contexts in which it is constructed. It draws on a comparative study of the contributions of third sector organisations to civil society, particularly a collaborative research project, Voluntary Associations and Active Citizenship-Welfare, Democracy and the Market in Australia, Russia and Sweden which involved the author as a member of the research team. The paper elaborates four operating frameworks in third sector organisations and discusses the ways in which these frameworks facilitate, co-opt or impede volunteer practices in different settings. (Journal abstract)

Kerr, L; Tedmanson,D
Active citizenship, social capital and diversity: when volunteering falls 'outside the square'.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.8 no.1 2003: 22-32

Contemporary discourse increasingly revolves around notions of civil society, the third way, social capital, active citizenship, social attachment and strong communities. The authors' concern in this article is to locate volunteering, particularly non mainstream volunteering, within the discourse. The authors begin with an overview of what is and is not commonly regarded as volunteering and subsequent links with active citizenship, and then discuss notions of social capital and the third way. They refute the claim that people need to be formal volunteers in order to be validated as active citizens and contributors to social capital.

Leonard, R
Unpaid work, grasshopper accusations and the threat to social capital. In: Onyx, J., Leonard, R., and Reed, R. eds. Revisioning aging: empowerment of older women. New York: Peter Land, 1999, p77-92 (Eruptions; v.4)

The cumulative effect of years of unpaid contribution is that many women have not been able to make financial provision for their old age, states the author. Beyond rage, how can we respond? Three responses are explored in this chapter. One is to urge women to refuse to do unpaid work. Second is to uphold the value of unpaid work in economic terms. And third is to challenge the economic rationalist discourses by presenting a nonindivualistic, noneconomic understanding of the basis of society, through the concept of social capital. Issues examined include: the contribution from volunteering through formal organisation; assessing caring work; women planning their futures; caring for family members; and whether women should be involved in the Women Planning their Futures study.

Lyons, M
Implications of the new discourse of civil society. In: Volunteering Australia: seventh national conference on volunteering: conference papers. Sydney, NSW: Volunteering Australia, 1997, p141-144

Who or what are volunteers, and what sort of activities constitute volunteering? The author addresses these questions, then discusses new discourses around citizenship, social capital and civil society, and the implications for people associated with the organising of volunteering.

Lyons, M; Fabiansson, C
Is volunteering declining in Australia? Australian Journal on Volunteering v.2 no.2 Aug 1998: 15-21, tables

Are more or less Australians volunteering? In addressing this question, this article argues that the level of participation in voluntary work is an important indicator of social capital. The results of Australian Bureau of Statistics' surveys are examined in relation to the decline in volunteering and in order to test the hypothesised reasons for its decline. Volunteer rates are compared between Victoria, Queensland, NSW and South Australia, in the years 1982, 1986, 1988, and 1995. Conclusions indicate that there is no simple explanation for the decline in volunteering.

Lyons, M
Non-profit organisations, social capital and social policy in Australia.
In: Winter, I. ed. Social capital and public policy in Australia. Melbourne, Vic: Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2000, p165-191

Membership in voluntary associations or non-profit organisations is said to be both a sign of and a mechanism for building social capital, and a decline in association membership is seen as another sign, and a source, of declining social capital. This chapter explores the intersection of these two sets of claims. It spells out the claims and describes the ways in which Australian non-profit organisations contribute to both social policy and social capital. The literature on how they contribute to social capital is reviewed and whether they can play a larger role in social policy and do more to build social capital is examined. Conclusions indicate that their capacity to deliver on those two fronts is limited.

McDonald, C; Mutch, A
The future of volunteering as institutionalising practice.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p125-139

Drawing on a particular branch of organisational theory known as neo institutional theory, this chapter uses this theory to explain the role of volunteers and the non profit sector in creating phenomena such as civil society and social capital. A model or explanatory framework for examining volunteering in the contemporary context is outlined, highlighting its use in exploring possible consequences of change and instability for volunteering and for the organisations in which people volunteer.

Onyx, J
Third sector as voice: the importance of social capital.
Third Sector Review v.7 no.2 2001: 73-88

This paper explores the relationship between social capital, 'voice' and the third sector. It does so with reference to the community renewal of two small rural towns, in Sweden and Australia respectively. It is argued that the community renewal process in both cases depended on the development of eight aspects of 'voice', all of which combined to generate the necessary social capital to make community action possible. The core of all community renewal is the capacity of the third sector to act as an important voice of civil society, to articulate the needs of the community, to mobilise social capital in response to those needs, and to develop new creative responses. (Journal abstract)

Onyx, J; Leonard, R
Women, volunteering and social capital.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p113-124, figures

This chapter explores the relationship between volunteering and social capital from a feminist perspective. The nature of social capital; the distinction between bonding and bridging social capital; and the place of women are issues discussed.

Patulny, R
Social capital: values and time use.
In: 8th Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference, Melbourne, 12-14 February 2003: proceedings. Melbourne, Vic: Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2003, 13p. Online only (PDF 42 KB)
http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc8/patulny.pdf
Theoretical inquiries into the nature of social capital have produced the broad consensus that social cohesion requires trust. Yet the nature of trust itself is misunderstood and contested, its status as a precursor to volunteering is confused and its interactions with values and practice little examined. Presenting regression data from two surveys, the ABS Time Use and the World Values Survey, this paper examines the effects of trust, values and time use activities relevant to work, religion, family and friends as related precursors to generalised social capital, measured as volunteering. This is done with a particular interest in identifying interactive 'crowding out' effects among the precursors (eg family/ particularised vs generalised social capital). Findings suggest that work, religion and friends are all good potential contributors to generalised social capital and volunteering, though the causality and interaction each has with trust is still unclear. Family appears to have no link with volunteering however, confounding the 'crowding out' thesis. (Author abstract)

Robinson, D
Social capital and voluntary activity: giving and sharing in Maori and non- Maori society. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand no.17 Dec 2001: 52-71, figures

This paper provides a definition of social capital, suggests how social capital is formed and used, and introduces a framework, for understanding the concept in Maori terms. Extracts from case studies illustrate some of the community relations and networks that are drawn upon in the Maori community to activate their social capital. The proposition that engaging in voluntary activity is an essential aspect of social capital leads to consideration of the way in which such activity is viewed in Pakeha and Maori terms, conceptualised as a distinction between giving (European concept of volunteering) and sharing (Maori concept of cultural obligation). Giving, sharing, duty and reciprocity are put forward as ways in which people behave, and volunteering is placed alongside public service, governance and unpaid work as illustrations of ways in which voluntary activity is described. A model is presented for illustrating the relations between values, structures (forms of community associations) and the state/legal environment in which they operate. It is argued that in developing policy attention needs to be paid to the terms on which different actors in society engage, and to ensure that the positions of different groups are recognised and that they are included on their own terms. (Journal abstract)

Sims, Winston.
Families and volunteerism. Families International no. 39 Apr 2001: 1-3

This article explores the relation between volunteerism and families. The positive aspects of volunteerism, both for the individual and the community, are highlighted. The author argues that many of the tasks undertaken within families equal a form of volunteerism. Even if familial activity is not seen as volunteerism, it is within the family that people learn the values, attitudes and skills that may lead to volunteerism in the wider community.

Stewart-Weeks, M
Voluntary associations: social capital at work or post-modern romance? In: Norton, A., Latham, M., Sturgess, G., and Stewart-Weeks, M. eds. Social capital: the individual, civil society and the state. St Leonards, NSW: Centre for Independent Studies, 1997, p85-113

The author looks at the role of voluntary associations as institutions of social capital. He believes that they are in many ways uniquely suited to play an important role in the modern world, but he also notes their disadvantages and suggests that an enthusiasm for social capital needs to be tempered with a degree of healthy scepticism. (Foreword)

Wilkinson, J; Bittman, M
Volunteering: the human face of democracy. Sydney, NSW: Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2002, 20p, tables, figures (SPRC discussion paper no.114), and Online (129 KB) http://www.sprc.unsw.edu.au/dp/DP114.pdf

Since the mid 1990s, following the reception in Australia of Robert Putnam's theory about social capital, volunteering has been seen as a means of expanding democracy. Social researchers have stressed the role of friendly social networks and informal civil associations in generating reserves of trust and social capital. The broad social benefits of trust are now widely recognised as having the potential to sustain and renovate economic and political institutions. Robert Putnam uses volunteering as an index of civic participation and argues that the imminent decline of volunteering signals a potential crisis for democracy. In this paper, the authors challenge Putnam's thesis from two directions, empirically and theoretically. Using information about time spent in volunteering from 1974 to 1997, it can be shown that, far from the decline in volunteering Putnam predicts, there is likely to be a significant increase in the total number of volunteer hours supplied. While this does give some reason to anticipate an expansion of democracy in the future, the authors argue that Putnam also underestimates the democratising potential of volunteering by ignoring the relationships of care in which volunteering is anchored. (Author abstract)

Wilkinson, J; Bittman, M
Neighbourly acts - volunteering, social capital and democracy.
Australian Journal on Volunteering v.7 no.2 2002: 32-44, tables, figures

Since the mid 1990s, following the reception in Australia of Robert Putnam's theory about social capital, volunteering has been seen as a means of expanding democracy. Social researchers have stressed the role of friendly social networks and informal civil associations in generating reserves of trust and social capital. The broad social benefits of trust are now widely recognised as having the potential to sustain and renovate economic and political institutions. Robert Putnam uses volunteering as an index of civic participation and argues that the imminent decline of volunteering signals a potential crisis for democracy. In this paper, the authors challenge Putnam's thesis from two directions, empirically and theoretically. Using information about time spent in volunteering from 1974 to 1997, it can be shown that far from the decline in volunteering Putnam predicts, there is likely to be a significant increase in the total number of volunteer hours supplied. While this does give us some reason to anticipate an expansion of democracy in the future, they argue that Putnam also underestimates the democratising potential of volunteering by ignoring the relationships of care in which volunteering is anchored. (Journal abstract)

Zappala, G
Civil society and the nonprofit sector: the role of volunteers. Camperdown, NSW: The Smith Family, 2000, 4p, figures (Research and advocacy briefing paper no.3) (119 KB)

An increased international interest in the contribution of volunteering to social and economic well being is reflected in United Nations declaration of 2001 as the International Year of the Volunteer. Why has this increased interest in volunteering occurred? The underlying interest can be traced to two key related factors that correspond to different paradigms for understanding voluntary activity: the growth and interest in debates surrounding social capital and civil society; and the reconfiguration of the welfare and community sectors. This paper summarises these two main paradigms and argues that a synthesis is emerging.

Standards and guidelines:

Aged Care and Housing Group (South Australia)
The volunteer guide: a helpful guide to volunteering. Adelaide, SA: Aged Care and Housing Group, 1998, 45p, illus., figures
Aiming to provide basic knowledge to support learning from a volunteer training program and to promote confidence in the volunteer, this handbook describes how volunteer programs are a vital link between the aged, disabled or isolated people and the community, and are important in promoting self esteem, encouraging independence and enhancing the quality of life for aged or disabled persons. Areas covered include: the benefits of volunteering; attitudes, rights and responsibilities; communication skills; advocacy and confidentiality; safety; the ageing process; assisting with meals; coping with dementia; loss and grief; problem solving; and stress management.

Cordingley, S
The definition and principles of volunteering: a framework for public policy.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p73-82, tables

A definition of formal volunteering, developed by Volunteering Australia, the peak body for the voluntary sector, is detailed in this chapter which includes a specific set of 11 principles. Implications for social policy and for organisations that involve volunteers are considered.

Esmond, J
Count me in! 501 ideas on recruiting volunteers.
Victoria Park, WA: Newseasons Publications, 2001, 246p

Aimed at assisting all those involved with volunteers, volunteer recruitment and membership development, this book presents ideas from a wide range of sources on recruiting volunteers. These cover issues including: generating publicity; using the media effectively; speaking in public; targeting by trade or profession; increasing cultural diversity; involving the ageing population; using the Internet; and creating business partnerships.

Good Beginnings National Parenting Project
Best practice guidelines for volunteer home visiting. Surry Hills, NSW: Good Beginnings National Parenting Project, 1999, 8p
Volunteer home visiting programs for families with dependent children are family focused services, working with individuals and family units in an holistic way, to reduce their vulnerability, strengthening the community as a whole. These guidelines have been designed to set a framework for the manner in which volunteer home visiting support is provided, to strengthen the capacity of families and to give best care to children. The document has been produced on the basis of a national workshop convened by Good Beginnings. Over a period of two days, program coordinators and other professionals involved in volunteer home visiting of families with dependent children discussed standards for home visiting. The draft guidelines were circulated widely, to engage maximum participation in this consultation process.

Johnson, S; McAdam, H
Building consumers in: a resource manual in consumer participation for the not-for-profit sector.
Caulfield South, Vic: Arthritis Victoria, 2001, 37p, and Online - National Resource Centre for Consumer Participation in Health, La Trobe University, Online (MS Word 359K)
http://www.participateinhealth.org.au/ClearingHouse/Docs/cappsbuilding consumersinmanualweb.doc
This manual is designed to be a resource book to assist the not-for-profit sector to develop policies and practices that facilitate consumer participation in the organisation. It chronicles the development of Arthritis Victoria (AV) over three decades from a self help group to a thriving organisation that has over 44 paid staff and 600 volunteers. Most of these volunteers have been consumers of AV services, and it is this movement, from consumer to volunteer, which is the real story of AV's success. The manual has been compiled by project consultants who conducted a series of interviews with consumer-volunteers, staff and key Board members. The comments made by key informants were collated and analysed by the project team and integrated with current literature to develop the manual.

Lamerton, J
Competency standards for volunteer management familiarisation workshop. In: Volunteering Australia: seventh national conference on volunteering: conference papers. Sydney, NSW: Volunteering Australia, 1997, p94-126
This paper commences with an overview of the final draft of the Competency Standards for Volunteer Management, which have been developed by Volunteering NSW. It discusses the need for competency standards, and how and why they were developed. It then lists the names of the working party members, outlines the Australian National Training Authority requirements of standards and the methodology employed, and presents the standards themselves for consideration by workshop participants. The Competency Standards for the Management of Volunteers are intended to cover any coordinator or manager working in any organisation or group which chooses to accept the Standards. They are not compulsory but will be recommended as best practice standards by the Australian Council for Volunteering and will set professional criteria for those who want such recognition through accredited training courses.

New South Wales. Department of the Premier. Employee Volunteering Working Group
Employee volunteering guide: a resource for employers, volunteers and not-for-profit organisations.
Sydney, NSW: Department of the Premier, 2002, 25p, Online only
http://www.communitybuilders.nsw.gov.au/builder/volunteering/evg.html
This guide aims to be a practical resource. It is for all parties to employee volunteering - the employees of an organisation, the employer and the not-for-profit organisation who has activities that are suitable for the volunteers. The guide covers what employee volunteering is; getting started; implementation; promotion; evaluation; and where to get more information.

Volunteering Australia Inc.
National standards for involving volunteers in not-for-profit organisations. Melbourne, Vic: Volunteering Australia, 2nd ed., 2001, 65p

National standards for involving volunteers in non profit organisations were developed through a consultation process with organisations involving volunteers, and volunteers themselves over the course of several years. The national standards have been written with the explicit intention of protecting the volunteer, the volunteer involving organisation and the customer of the organisation. The standards emphasise the importance of adopting a systems approach to managing volunteers. Compliance with the standards will ensure that volunteer rights are protected, their role is explicit and they work in safe and healthy environments. The standards cover the following aspects of volunteer involvement: policies and procedures; management responsibilities; recruitment; work and the workplace; training and development; service delivery; documentation and records; and continuous improvement.

Volunteering Australia Inc.
National standards implementation guide for not-for-profit organisations involving volunteers. Melbourne, Vic: Volunteering Australia, 2001, 92p, tables, figures

This implementation guide for national standards involving volunteers in non profit organisations aims to make a long term difference in the ways volunteers are managed. The manual presents a practical approach to implementing the standards, and is designed to help anyone who manages or coordinates volunteers to implement the national standards in their own organisation. It provides a step-by-step process for building a volunteer management system that accords with best known practice in the field. The manual is divided into the following three parts: a discussion of the term 'standards', the approaches to implementation and the need to tailor these approaches to suit individual circumstances; a guide which explains each step in the implementation; and resources which provide sample worksheets, templates and other resources to assist in implementing the standards.

Wiseman, R; Warburton, J
The experiences of governance in community-managed welfare organisations.
Third Sector Review v.8 no.2 2002: 51-69, tables

At a time when the management of community-managed welfare organisations is the subject of much debate, little attention has been paid to the volunteer committee members who govern these organisations. Little appears to be understood about the governance role and its differentiation from the management role. Moreover, little is understood about the characteristics of committee members, about their suitability for their roles, nor about their satisfaction with their responsible but voluntary positions. Against this backdrop, the respondents to a small exploratory survey of committee members showed they are a robust group, notwithstanding a number of issues that need to be addressed if they are to perform their role better and be more satisfied with their task. These results provide a sound level of optimism for future developments aimed at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisations they govern. (Journal abstract)

Trends and patterns of volunteerism

Bittman, M; Thomson, C
Invisible support: the determinants of time spent in informal care.
In: Warburton, J. and Oppenheimer, M. eds. Volunteers and volunteering. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press, 2000, p98-112, tables, figures

The aim of this chapter is to explore the extent to which time use data can make the invisible world of care, especially co-residential care visible. The focus is on informal care, unpaid and largely carried out by women, of frail aged and disabled people. Issues addressed include: formal welfare, volunteering and informal caring; contemporary significance of informal caring; contemporary significance of informal care; characteristics of care recipients and of informal carers; the idea of time accounting and time signatures; and implications for policy.

Evans, M D R
Participation in voluntary organisations, Australia 2001-2002.
Australian Social Monitor v.6 no.2 Jun 2003: 19-33, tables, figures

This article investigates the degree to which Australians take part in different types of voluntary associations. Several degrees of engagement are examined: passive membership, one or two active participations a year, and three or more participations a year. The types of voluntary organisations are: sport and hobby associations, neighbourhood organisations, charitable associations, religious organisations, political organisations, trade unions and professional associations, and miscellaneous voluntary associations. Factor analysis suggests that these cluster into two main types: an altruistic or community type and a political economy type, although the sporting and hobby associations do not fit in either group. The article examines differences of involvement according to age, gender, educational level, religious participation, geographic location, employment status, political affiliation, country of birth, family income, marital status and unemployment experience.

Flick, M; Bittman, M; Doyle, J
The community's most valuable (hidden) asset - volunteering in Australia.
Sydney, NSW: Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2002, 100p, tables (SPRC Reports 2/02), Online only (PDF 622 KB)
http://www.sprc.unsw.edu.au/reports/Volunteering%20Report.pdf
Volunteering has been taken as an important index of civil society, or as an indicator of the social health and connectedness of communities. This final report prepared for the Department of Family and Community Services includes a review of the literature on current developments in volunteering, the state of volunteering in Australia, projections of future volunteer supply, and a summary of focus group discussions with volunteers and non-volunteers which explored participants' motives for, and experiences of, volunteering.

Sandilands, J; Allen, K; Renzenbrink, I; MacFarlane, D; Taylor, R; Threthewey, J
Volunteering for the community.
Leadership Dec 2000: 1-35

Leading volunteers and volunteer organisations require a special set of skills. It is for this reason, along with the International Year of Volunteers 2001, that the theme for this publication is leadership in volunteering. Articles include: Volunteering in the 21st century by Jane Sandilands (pp4-7); Responding to the challenge of the International Year of Volunteers by Kenn Allen (pp8-10); Volunteers are us by Irene Renzenbrink (pp11-13) in which the author reflects on the role of volunteers in hospitals, community support work, bereavement counselling and palliative care; A change of name, not nature, by Don Macfarlane (pp14-15) which discusses the name change from Williamson Community Leadership Program to Leadership Victoria; Banking on the community by Robin Taylor (pp26-27) which describes how the closure of many regional and rural branches of Australia's major banks has stimulated a surge in community leadership, and a show of leadership from one of Victoria's smallest provincial banks; and, SkillsBank: putting runs on the board (pp28-29), in which Jenny Threthewey describes how the Williamson SkillsBank assists the community.

Volunteering Western Australia
Volunteering in Western Australia: trends and patterns 1995 to 2000.
Perth, WA: Department of the Premier and Cabinet, 2001, 38p, tables, figures

This publication represents a cooperative effort on the part of the Department of the Premier and Cabinet and Volunteering Western Australia, and reflects the partnering approach taken during the International Year of Volunteers, 2001. How volunteers contribute to society, a demographic profile of volunteers in Western Australia, their reasons for volunteering, volunteer activities and volunteer involvement, are examined in this publication. This information provides a comparison between data from 1995 and 2000, looks at trends and patterns, and presents a snapshot of Western Australian volunteers.

Warburton, J; Crosier, T
Are we too busy to volunteer? The relationship between time and volunteering using the 1997 ABS time use data.
Australian Journal of Social Issues v.36 no.4 Nov 2001: 295-314

Time availability is a key concept in relation to volunteering, leading to organisations and governments targeting those outside paid work as a potential source of volunteers. It may be that factors such as a growth in female participation in the labour market and an increase in work hours will lead to more people saying they are simply too busy to volunteer. This paper discusses how social and economic change, such as changing work patterns, are impacting on time availability. Using the 1997 ABS Time Use data, it identifies a predictive model of spare time by looking at demographic, life stage and employment related variables. Results confirm that those outside paid work, particularly the young, males and those without partners or children, are the groups most likely to have time to spare. These groups do not currently report high rates of volunteering. The paper concludes by questioning the premise that people will volunteer simply because they have time to spare. This is just one component of a range of motivations and factors that influence the decision to volunteer. (Journal abstract)

Young volunteers:

Coleman, S
Strengthening communities through volunteering - www.actnow.com.au.
In: Place Management - 10. PPP2 Conference - Policy, practice and results - Workshop Series 3, Papers. New South Wales: communitybuilders.nsw, 2003, 13p, Online only (PDF 532 KB)
http://www.communitybuilders.nsw.gov.au/sync/PPR2%20-%20Act%20Now.pdf
An overview is provided in this paper of ActNow, an online volunteering service designed to usher in a new era of volunteering and community engagement among young people. It combines effective use of technology with youth participation and a proven community engagement program. ActNow provides an Internet-based matching service whereby non-profit organisations looking for young people to volunteer can register positions on the site so that young people can apply to undertake volunteering opportunities in their local communities.

Croft, C
Volunteer community organisations and the VYDP: what's in it for the service provider?
In: 2nd National Youth Development Conference proceedings. Adelaide, SA: Ausyouth, 2001, 5p, Online (35 KB)
http://www.thesource.gov.au/ausyouth/conf_pdf/pg103.pdf
The Victorian Youth Development Program (VYDP) provides a link between community organisations and schools. It is a state government initiative conducted in state secondary schools where students are taken out of the classroom and offered a range of opportunities that promote youth leadership and community service. This paper addresses the preliminary findings of a qualitative study into the perceived and real benefits that voluntary community organisations receive from participation in the VYDP. An analysis of the structure and cultures of the organisations is presented in relation to the expected and unexpected benefits of participation in the VYDP.

Flanagan, C A; Bowes, J M; Jonsson, B; Csapo, B; Sheblanova, E
Ties that bind: correlates of adolescents' civic commitments in seven countries. Journal of Social Issues v.54 no.3 Fall 1998: 457-475, tables

The authors advance two theses about the developmental processes that undergird citizenship: 1) that family values inform children's developing concepts of a political community and of their responsibilities to the public interest; and 2) that experiences of membership in institutions beyond the family are necessary for the social integration of young people into a political community and for their identification with the common good. The article presents the relationship of voluntary work, school climates, and family values to public interest as a life goal of adolescents for a sample of 5579 12-18 year olds in three stable and four transitional democracies: Australia, United States, Sweden, Hungary, Czech Republic, Bulgaria and Russia.

Fryar, A
Engaging and retaining volunteers for youth development.
In: 2nd National Youth Development Conference proceedings. Adelaide, SA: Ausyouth, 2001, 7p, illus, Online (95 KB)
http://www.thesource.gov.au/ausyouth/conf_pdf/pg22.pdf
In addressing the question of what attracts young people to, or turns them away from engaging in voluntary activities, this paper examines three aspects of involving youth in volunteering activities: recruitment, retention, and the implications of current volunteering trends on organisations and individuals who manage volunteers and volunteer programs. Issues are discussed of: fairness and consistency; honesty and integrity; discipline; enthusiasm; understanding and empathy; receptive to cadet views; knowledge; freedom and autonomy; and retraining retiring cadets.

Manly, J
The participation of young people in public and community activities: literature and data survey.
Canberra, ACT: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, 2000, 25p plus attachments

This survey was undertaken to identify sources of data and literature which provide information on the participation of young people in public and community life both in Australia and overseas. It focuses on the following four main aspects of participation: the extent to which young people are engaged in meaningful activities outside of education and training, work, and personal and family life; the roles that young people undertake within those activities, such as leading, organising and instructing; the perspectives of young people on the value of participation both to themselves and their communities; and the factors which facilitate, encourage, prevent or deter participation. Recommendations are provided and implications of the research for policy decision makers are considered.

Sanders, C
Volunteering and youth development: making a positive difference. Good practice: an implementation guide. Adelaide, SA: Ausyouth, 2002, 71p, and Online (PDF 708 KB) http://www.thesource.gov.au/ausyouth/pdf/volunteer_youthdev.pdf

Ausyouth is a national project providing a range of services to promote, coordinate and facilitate youth development. Following the release of the framework of principles for good practice in 2001, Ausyouth undertook to produce a series of practical resources on key aspects of good practice. The intent of this publication is to provide assistance to youth development provider organisations in implementing good practice in volunteering and youth development. It focuses on drawing on the work that is available both nationally and internationally on good practice in volunteering and applying it to a youth development environment. The publication is intended for use primarily by youth development program coordinators and managers.

Sims, Winston.
Families and volunteerism. Families International no. 39 Apr 2001: 1-3

This article explores the relation between volunteerism and families. The positive aspects of volunteerism, both for the individual and the community, are highlighted. The author argues that many of the tasks undertaken within families is a form of volunteerism. Even if familial activity is not seen as volunteerism, it is within the family that people learn the values, attitudes and skills that may lead to volunteerism in the wider community.

Warburton, J; Crosier, T
Are we too busy to volunteer? The relationship between time and volunteering using the 1997 ABS time use data. Australian Journal of Social Issues v.36 no.4 Nov 2001: 295-314

Winefield, A H; Montgomery, B; Gault, U; Muller, J; O'Gorman, J; Reser, J; Roland, D
The psychology of work and unemployment in Australia today: an Australian Psychological Society discussion paper. Australian Psychologist v.37 no.1 Mar 2002: 1-9

This paper reviews recent literature on psychological aspects of work, unemployment, and underemployment in Australia at the beginning of the 21st century. It examines different notions of 'work', including paid employment and unpaid work (e.g., emotional work, volunteer work). It draws attention to the fact that, in our society, most of the important emotional work is carried out by women (caring for children, disabled relatives, and elderly dependent parents). It discusses the well-documented negative effects of unemployment and underemployment and the corresponding benefits of having work, focusing on young people, middle- aged people, and retired people. Finally, it discusses the psychological and health costs of being employed, in the light of the changes in the workplace that have occurred in the last decade: increased work pressures, less job security, increasing needs for retraining, increased income inequality, and an inequitable distribution of paid work. (Journal abstract)